1
100
1273
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HIS 498, Spring 2019
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"Snow and trees"
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Krapowicz, Jacob C., 1935-1999
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undated
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13x11" watercolor painting
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Krapowicz, Jacob C., 1935-1999
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Although static, the birds appear to be in the midst of a real snow storm due to the technique used by the artist.
landscape
Marjorie Echos
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pier
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https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._01_num._1_Clio_-_1973/6/CLIO_1973_Front.pdf
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History Department
WESTERN CONNECT1CUT STATE COLLEGE
VOLUME I ,- UMBER 1
N
N V M E , 1973
O E BR
Page
C NET
OTNS
Introduction.
.......e..,........ 1
...........m..
H istorical Researcht The Interview
by Richard Gallagher,
2
The Korean Connection: o r, Dealing Nth t he "Student
.........,....,
Directed Study"
b y l h v i d W Detser.
.
Admission t o L w School: Impressions and Ideas
a
by Richard E m Ducey . . . . . . . e . . . . .
.
Archival Research: Germany
b ~ J o h n A .b opold.
o
The U brary of Congress
by Barbara Lotta Cole
H istory Newsletter
.
.
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.
,
8
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8
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.
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.
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.
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�INTRODUCTION
C LIO, t h e muse of history, i s p ublished by the Sigma Eta
Chapter of Phi Alpha Theta (the International History Honor
Society), i n cooperation with t h e Western Connecticut State
College History Club. This i s s u e of C L I O w s f inanced by S tudent
a
Government Association funds and i s f r e e of charge t o any member
of the s tuderrt body. The e d i t o r of t h e f i r s t issue of C U O i s
R ichard Ducey, P resident of the Sigma Eta Chapter of P fii Alpha
Thota.
This journal would not have boon possible without t ho
c ooperation of many i ndividuals, I n p articular we wbuld l i k e t o
thank M. C lare Ingham, who dosignad o ur oovor and a s s i s t e d
r
i n tho printing of C U O t Dr. H erbert J anick, Chairman of t h e
I Iistory Department, f o r h?-s oncouragoment and support; and
two h i s t o r y professors, D r. David D etser and D r. John b opold,
who t ooh t ime o ut from t h e i r f aculty d u t i e s t o w rite a rt?':les
f o r us. Dr. h o p o l d i s a l s o tho f a c u l t y advisor f o r both Phi
Alpha Theta and tho HLstory Club. F inally, r ecognition must
go t o the many s tudents who volunteered f o r hours of d r a work
i n an a ttempt t o mako WESCONN a b e t t e r school.
�
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Vol. 01, num. 1, Clio - 1973
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Western Connecticut State College
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1973-11-01
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Title
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Cover, Clio 1973
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CLIO, the muse of history, is published by the Sigma Eta
Chapter of Phi Alpha Theta (the International History Honor Society), in cooperation with the Western Connecticut State College History Club. This issue of CLIO was financed by Student Government Association funds and is free of charge to any member of the student body. The editor of the first issue of CLIO is Richard Ducey, President of the Sigma Eta Chapter of Phi Alpha Theta. This journal would not have boon possible without the cooperation of many individuals, In particular we would like to thank Mr. Clare Ingram, who designed our cover and assisted in the printing of CLIO; Dr. Herbert Janick, Chairman of the History Department, for encouragement and support and two history professors, Dr. David Detzer and Dr. John Leopold, who took time out from their faculty duties to write articles for us. Dr. Leopold is also the faculty adviser for both Phi Alpha Theta and tho History Club. Finally, recognition must go to the many students who volunteered for hours of work in an attempt to make WESCONN a better school.
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[NA]
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Western Connecticut State College
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1973
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��
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Vol. 01, num. 2, Clio - 1974
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Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
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1974-05-01
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[NA]
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Cover
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cover
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1973-05-01
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Western Connecticut State College
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HISTORY NEWSLETTER
P hi Alpha Theta i s a n I nternational H istory Honor S ociety and i s
composed o f t hose who have e xcelled i n t he s tudy o f H istory. A pplications
f or membership i n t he Sigma E ta C hapter o f Phi Alpha Theta a re b eing
a ccepted u ntil Monday, F ebruary 4, 1974. Requirements d ictate t hat s tudents
h old a 301 a verage i n H istory ( at l east 12 s emester h ours) and a 3 .0 a verage
i n t wo-thirds o f o ther c ourses. The a pplication f ee i s $20.00, which i ncludes
l ifetime membership dues. P lease c ontact Rich Ducey (Box 482) o r t he H istory
Department f or f urther i nformation.
******************
T his s amester t he H istory Department i s i nvolved i n a p ilot
prograln. American P erspectives ( Section 6 ) i s u tilizing a team approach,
and what i s u nique about i t i s t he f act t hat t horo a re s tudents t aking
p art i n t he t eaching, The f our s enior u ndergraduate t eaching a ssistants
a re J oan Zawacki, Rich G allagher, Rich Ducey, and Gary S utcliffe. Jack
F riel i s t he g raduato member and Dr. H erbert J anick i s t he f aculty
membor. This experiment w ill a ttempt t o p rovide a c ourse i n which t he
s tUdent i s a p articipant r ather t han a n o bserver. A pproximately s ixty
[r~-;ldents a re e nrolled i n t he c ourse and each t eaching a ssistant a nd
Dr'. J allick w ill bo r osponsible f or a bout t en s tudents. I t o ffers a n
n lternativo s olution t o t he problems o f l arge e nrollments and a s hortage
of' facult~y.
******************
Tho t hird segment o f t he H istory D epartment's L ecture S eries w ill
b e b e p resentod MOnday, F ebruary 11, 1974, a t 4,00 PM i n t he S tudent
Union. Profe;: ,':) r Bigelow Cushman p a n E nglish p rofessor who s pecializes
t n American s'(",udies, w ill g ive a t alk e ntitled "American DocumentG I
U terature and H istory." The theme o f P rofessor Cushman's l ecture
w ill b e t he ways i n which American l iterature c an b e used a s a n
h istorical s ource. A ll s tudents and f aculty a re i nvited t o a ttend.
******************
The t hird i ssue o f CLIO i s s cheduled f or t he end o f March. The
s taff r equests c ontributions f or t he i ssue. There i s no s pecific theme
f or t his i ssue, so p apers c oncerning anY a spect o f h istory a re
a cceptable. S tudents who w rote term p apers l ast s emester may b e
i nterested i n s ubmitting them a t t his t ime f or p ublication. P lease
c ontact Rich Ducey (Box 482).
******************
The H istory S ociety w ill p resent two f eature f ilms t his s emester,
"The l ast H urrah" and "The Poppy i s Also a F lower." The d ates w ill b e
announced s hortly. The c lub i s a lso r equesting a dditional f unds from
t he SGA i n o rder t o p resent a D.W. G riffith 5,ymposium i n March o r A pril.
A d ecision i s e xpected s hortly. S tudents who a re i nterested i n j oining
t he H istory S ociety a re u rged t o c ontact Rich G allagher (Box 1824).
******************
Sharon Noel g raciously a ccepted t ho r esponsibility o f t yping t his
i ssue o f CLIO and we on t he s taff would l iko t o e xvrOBS o ur appreci~tion
t o Sharon f or a j ob w ell done.
�
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Vol. 01, num. 2, Clio - 1974
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Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
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1974-05-01
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[NA]
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History Newsletter
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1973-05-01
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Western Connecticut State College
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https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._48_num._1_Clio_-_2021/6830/Clio_Ch_1_Accuosti.pdf
25291bb2cb0648678529f8f57634397a
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Accuosti, Pizarro Family
The Pizarro Family and the Conquest of Peru
Francine Accuosti
Known for his conquest of the Incan Empire in Peru, Francisco Pizarro (d.
15 4 1) most likely had no idea what was waiting for him when he started out on his
expedition in December of 15 30. Little did he know that what was happening in the
Incan Empire was in his favor. Setting out on his adventure, he probably thought he
was in for fame and fortune, great wealth, and power, as Hernán Cortés (14 8 5 -15 4 7 )
did almost a decade earlier. Because of many failed attempts at an expedition, Pizarro
finally, with the help of his friend Diego de Almagro (14 7 5 -15 38 ), was able to gain
the funds for a quest into Peru. Because of the previous failures, he knew he had to
deliver on profit to make his expedition successful, and to receive reinforcements. The
huge success of Cortez in Mexico probably put a lot of pressure on Pizarro to succeed.
To join them, Pizarro brought along his four brothers and his cousin. This
was a strategic move on his part. This would mean that instead of any profits and
titles being shared two ways, it would be split between all seven giving the Pizarro
family 8 6 percent of the rewards. Much of Pizzaro’s first profits accompanied his
brother Hernando back to Spain in the summer of 15 33. A lot of the Pizarro wealth
was distributed in land purchase in and around the town of Trujillo in Spain where
the family was from, and in purchase of royal juros. Royal juros were the equivalent of
today’s government bonds. In the first decade after landing in Inca territory, the
Pizarro family had invested almost 3.5 million pesos in real estate and almost 30
million in juros.1
The Andean landscape is a very harsh one, with mountain ranges, deserts,
rivers, and jungles. It was an environment to which the Spanish were not acclimated.
This made the Spanish more vulnerable to native diseases. Working against them in
this respect was also the lack of a steady stream of supplies. Unlike Cortez, who had
the colonies in the Caribbean to get supplies and to send messages, Pizarro and his
group were mostly alone. The fact the Incan civilization was not an urban one, rather
Rafael Varon Gabai and Auke Pieter Jacobs, “Peruvian Wealth and Spanish Investments: The
Pizarro Family during the Sixteenth Century,”The Hispanic American Historical Review 67, no. 4
(1987): 657.
1
3
�Clio: WCSU History Journal
one that was made up of small villages, probably confused the conquistadors. They
most likely assumed the structure would be more like the known Aztec one in
Mexico. There were a few large cities, Cuzco being the biggest and grandest of them.
A difference between Pizarro’s conquest and Cortez’s was the speed at which
it happened. Pizarro’s march south was hindered by his need for supplies. He had a
much smaller band of men than Cortez, but because of the distance form established
Iberian settlements, they needed to make frequent stops to gather food and other
supplies. Along the way, he was able to gain a strong foothold in the villages of Peru.
It is over 1,5 00 miles from Cuzco to Panama City. The Spanish needed to easily find
villages to gain supplies. Helping the Spanish in their quest were the vast road
systems. The Inca used these to transport food, military and livestock all over the
kingdom. The roads spanned more than 30,000 miles.2 They roads were impressive
in construction:
The breadth of the road was approximately 20 feet, and stone pillars,
in the manner of milestones, were placed along the route at intervals
slightly exceeding a league. The road it-self was made of heavy flags of
freestone, covered over in some instances with a bituminous cement
which time made harder than the stone.3
An important factor to examine when it comes to how Pizarro was able to
successfully conquer the Incan Empire was the Incan Civil war that was raging when
Pizarro’s group first landed. This was important to the conquest because it was a boon
to Pizarro’s advance south from San Miguel de Piura. He encountered much less
resistance than he probably expected. Ever since Europeans came to the Americas,
diseases ravaged the native populations. A measles-like disease, possibly smallpox, ran
through the Incan people, including the nobility. Included in these deaths was the
Incan emperor, Huayna Capac (14 68 -15 24 ). When he died in 15 24 , he named one of
his sons his successor, who then also perished in the epidemic. The next choice was
his son Huáscar Inca (14 91-15 32). Huáscar was a rash youth and seized power with
no regard to his father’s previous advisors’ experiences. He gave power to his friends
Magda Von Der Heydt-Coca, “When Worlds Collide: The Incorporation of the Andean World into
the Emerging World-Economy in the Colonial Period,” Dialectical Anthropology 24, no. 1 (1999):
10.
3
Charles J. Merdinger, “Roads — through the Ages: I. Early Developments: Cumulative Index,”
Military Engineer 44, no. 302 (1952): 483-86.
2
4
�Accuosti, Pizarro Family
and had anyone that resisted him killed.4 Eventually, this news reached another son
of Huayna Capac, Atahualpa (15 02-15 33). Atahualpa’s base was in northern Quito,
and Huáscar was in Cuzco. When Huáscar refused to accept Atahualpa’s customary
gifts, war was declared between the brothers and over the course six months,
Atahualpa was able to destroy his brother’s armies and gain the throne.5 The
significance of this victory was the sense of confidence Atahualpa gained. He was able
to defeat a large army in a very short time. He had a military background and was a
skilled tactician on the battlefield. Even after reinforcements came about a year after
the landing, Pizarro’s forces still numbered under 100 men.6 Atahualpa was also
misled by his advisors, who underestimated Pizarro’s forces, and told the ruler they
could “take them prisoner with a few hundred men.”7 As Cortez has years earlier,
Pizarro was able to do his research because of the bonds he made during his journey
south.
When it comes to Pizarro’s tactics, we notice that they were unique in that it
seemed he was much more interested in domination than destruction. When he came
to a city, he would use tactics of fear and control. If he experienced any resistance, he
would kill just enough people to strike fear in the people of the town or village, and
then he would take control. This was a much different tactic from Cortés. He would
go into a city and if he experienced any resistance, he would stamp out the whole city.
Pizarro’s tactics for taking control of the new Incan emperor was similar to Cortez.
The point was to capture the emperor and use him as a puppet to control the
population and to get as much profit as possible. Atahualpa’s confidence was not
unwarranted, as he outnumbered Pizarro by forces of nearly 4 0,000 men to Pizarro’s
168 .8 When he sent traditional “gifts” of greeting to the Spanish, he sent skinned
ducks and a representation of a fortress. The ducks were a representation of what he
and his forces planned to do to them, and the fortress was what they were to
encounter should they proceed in their invasion.9 This is an interesting intimidation
4
John H. Rowe, “The Inca Civil War and the Establishment of Spanish Power in Peru,” Ñawpa
Pacha, 28, no. 1 (2006): 2.
Ibid., 3.
Gonzalo Lamana, “Beyond Exotization and Likeness: Alterity and the Production of Sense in a
Colonial Encounter,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 47, no. 1 (2005): 8.
7
Mark A. Burkholder and Lyman L. Johnson. “Colonial Latin America -” Bulletin of Latin American
Research 27, no. 4 (2008): 610-611.
8
Gonzalo Lamana, “Beyond Exotization and Likeness,” 23.
9
Ibid., 15.
5
6
5
�Clio: WCSU History Journal
technique. Part of this may have been because the Inca were a society based strongly
on divination, and celestial prediction.10 This could have been a way to force a self-
fulfilling prophecy. Perhaps he felt if he gave this “gift”, where he predicted the end
of the invaders, it would come true. Atahualpa was also informed by his scouts that
the Spanish could not be gods, because they acted like humans. They ate, drank, slept
etc., and they did not seem to perform any miraculous events:
[They] do not make sierras or flatten them, nor make people, nor do
they make rivers or water fountains flow on their way-if there is no
water, they need to carry it. And if they are not gods, they are men of
the worst kind: they take everything they see and desire- young
women, gold and silver vessels, rich clothes-and force bound Indians
to carry their things.11
This perception of the Spanish begs the question: Who did this help more?
While the first thought might be that it helped Atahualpa more, because he did not
give everything hoping to satisfy the gods and earn their favor, one could argue that
this perception was more helpful to Pizarro. Because Atahualpa realized the Spanish
were just mortal men, he most likely assumed their technology was in the same level
as his own. If this was the case, then he could easily destroy them if needed, as his
numbers were so much greater. Had the Spanish indeed been on the same level of
warcraft as the Inca, then yes, he would have been able to stem the tide of invasion.
Another factor to the success of Pizarro’s invasion was the city if Cajamarca
itself. Atahualpa did not have his forces in the city when the Spanish arrived. Instead,
he chose to keep his forces outside the city in a tambo, or inn-like complex.12 This
provided the Spanish an opportunity to hide around the plaza for an ambush without
Atahualpa’s men knowing about it. Atahualpa arrived in the city with only a fraction
of his forces, and Pizarro’s men were able to make short work of the capture.
Approximately 1,5 00 natives were killed in the skirmish.13
When he was captured, Atahualpa had only been in direct power a short
while. His capture decimated Incan morale. He was ransomed for vast sums. 11 tons
Rowe, “The Inca Civil War,” 2.
Gonzalo Lamana, “Beyond Exotization and Likeness,” 17.
12
Ibid., 23.
13
Mark A. Burkholder and Lyman L. Johnson. “Colonial Latin America,” Bulletin of Latin American
Research 27, no. 4 (2008): 610-611.
10
11
6
�Accuosti, Pizarro Family
of gold and 26,000 pounds of silver, granting each soldier 4 5 pounds of gold, and 90
pounds of silver.14 Pizarro kept Atahualpa alive for less than a year, after which he
installed a puppet government. This caused all sorts of problems like a revolution,
which is a subject for its own paper.
The conquest of Peru made the fortunes of the Pizarro family. The actions of
the leaders of the Spanish and Incan forces as well as the native roads helped in the
conquest. The large distances and the landscape hindered the advance of the Spanish.
There really is no definitive answer as to what worked best and what was the greatest
hinderance for the Spanish, or what was the deciding factor that put the nail in the
coffin for the Incan empire.
14
Ibid., 61.
7
�
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Vol. 48, num. 1, Clio - 2021
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2021
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The Pizarro Family and the Conquest of Peru
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Accuosti, Francine
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2021
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5 pgs
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Vol. 49, num. 1. Clio - 2022
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2022
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History
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Religious Similarities Between the Christian and Mayan Faiths
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Accuosti, Francine
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2022-05
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8 p.
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History and criticism
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Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
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https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1161/LB1584.A32.pdf
d12e2dc456931acd8c60fac7d6cdbdfe
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
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In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
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Western Connecticut State University
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Current trends in social studies curriculum.
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Adam, Sydney.
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Social sciences
Science and the humanities
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<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB1584.A32">CONSULS record</a>"
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LB1584.A32
Date
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1966
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https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/149/Woman_Coaches_Boys_Baseball.jpg
f4b0538d07bc1c92f0921ae209507d3c
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Title
A name given to the resource
Women Coach Boys' Baseball
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
AL Harvin
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1988-04-28
Description
An account of the resource
Newspaper article from the New York Times
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The article talks about Debbie McIntosh who became a coach to the Prospect Heights High School Boys' Baseball team. Before she became the baseball coach, Debbie was the girls' softball coach and led the boys' basketball team to the Public Schools Athletic League's B championship game.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
microfilm box New York Times April 21-30, 1988
Debbie McIntosh
his 298
Suffrage exhibit
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/133/Hospital_Sketches.jpeg
3eb815ae1b8df1b952ad56a30d4265b2
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/133/Hospital_Sketches_Preface_1.jpeg
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08b5547e95d52af13b0db806fbdbc232
Still Image
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Original Format
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Book
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Title
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Hospital Sketches
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Alcott, Louisa May
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1889
Description
An account of the resource
Sketches of a Civil War volunteer nurse
Civil War
nurse
stories
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/246/5e7d0ea5f844e8f98cb7877efece6894.mp3
e7a4d5ef2c541168fe36c42b45555228
Dublin Core
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Title
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Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
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Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
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Source
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Immigration and Memory Project
Type
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Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
32 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Billy Vu
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Alesi, Matthew
Subject
The topic of the resource
Vu, Billy
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Billy Vu tells the story of his family's decision to leave Communist Vietnam, live temporarily in a Hong Kong refugee camp, and finally to make a new life in the Danbury area. He describes the difficult conditions in the refugee camp and the birth of his younger sister there. The Vu family arrived in the United States with the help of church sponsorship and family members in the area. He had difficulties in school early on because of limited English proficiency, but went on to become completely fluent. He is now studying economics at Western Connecticut State University. He describes how he and his family adjusted to life and work here, and how the family managed well financially. He shares his views regarding perceptions and treatment of immigrants in the greater Danbury area.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Church Sponsorship
Communism
English Language Learning
Hai-Phon
Hong Kong Refugee Camps
Immigration
Oral History
Prejudice
Vietnam
Vietnamese Americans
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._03_num._1_Clio_-_1975/2265/Essay_2.pdf
f59a4a4af5c55c77bf00a351110cb3e3
PDF Text
Text
' 'Exhibit o n J ames ~~ontgomery B ailey a nd 1 9th
C entury D anbury a nd rTornen a nd ~'l.ork i n t he
1 9th C entury.
Scott~- Fanton i'r:. seum.
u
T udsclay.
t hrough S unday,. 2 -5 .,
T his n otice r an i n t he D anbury Ne,·rs~·Times" J·~ay .· 1 975 f or t hree
a nd o ne-half \\1 eeks. I t h e'TCra- spec~al s~qn~ficance f or me s ince
t he B ailey e xhibit w as t he r esult o f m y : semester? s t•TOrk u nder a
J ?rogram. p ioneered b '' t he r'. restern C onnecticut ' 3tate C ollege H istory
D epartment i n muse\Lll i nternship. T he p roqram,, a lso s ponsored b y
t he S cott-Fanton i" iuseum / ~rras ~,rorth s ix u ndergrac1uate c reoits, I
' ·ras o ne o f t~:ro m useum i nterns 1 L orraine O stergren l..Jas t he o ther.
T he j ob o f a n useu."'l i ntern ~ras t o r esearch a nd p t$re! a n e xhibit
o n a s pecific t opic. D r. H erbert J anick a nd D r_ T ruman ~"1arner
v 1ere o ur h istory d epartment a dvisors.
C hoosing a tor_:>ic w as d ifficult. I h ad t o p ick s omething ~·rhich
w ould k eeP me b usy r esearching d uring t~e sa~ester a nd a t t he e nd
v ield t he r aH m aterials n eeded f or a n e xhibit. M rs. D orothy S chling
t he r msemn ~ s c urator 1 w orked v ery c losely 1:•Ti t h r ne. S he s uggested.
a f ew t opics s uch a s r esearching s ilvenqare patterns~ s tudying t he
h istory o f D anbury H ospital, a nd t he o ne I c hose .: i ndexing J ames
l'iontgornery B ailey v s H istory o f D anbury.
W hile i ndexing t he H istory I h oped t o g lean f acts N hich I c ould
u se f or a n e xhibit. I t d id n ot e xactly t urn o ut t hat t ."ay. A f ew
i nteresting s tories a ppeared h ere a nd t here s uch a s a mor!:>id d escrip ·tion o f t-:10 h angings ' illhich o ccurred i n t he e arly 1 8th c entury i n
D anbury, a s hort b iog-raphy o f E nocll C rosby o f ~anbury ~~1ho ,._,ras t he
m odel f or J ames F enir:lore C oop,er; s S py s tories, b ut I d iu n ot f ind
m uch o n P hich I c ould b ase a n exhibit~ :~ore ~,;as n eeded.
I t F as
t hat p oint t hat ·r d ecided t o f ocus o n ~'3ailey h iinself a nd h is e x ··
p erience t o f ind o ut 'N~l.at l ife' "ilas l ike i n 1 9th c entury D anbury.
B ailey u as a p restigious f igure o f 1 9th c entury Danbury~ :!:Ia ~-ms
a C ivil ~lar h ero, a uthor o f a t l east f our b est·- sellers, a n c!. a hU:.llor'
ist CO!''lpared i n h is m m c lay t o t he l ikes o f ~!.ark T uain a nJ. : Cre·t H arte.
H e ' \.las a lso p ublisher t of t he J anbury . ie1'7's-T ines , w hich h e e staJ.:-lished
d uring t he 1 870's a nd l 1hich b ecai1te \Iorld r enowned u nder h is d irection.
tf. 11as d uring t hese y ears ( 1870 1 s -1393) t hat h e b ecame c alled t he " Danbury :l:Je·~;.-Ts-Man u •
I b egan g athering m aterials o n 3 ailey a nd D anbury. T hrough c onnections a t t he m useum .. I borrO'I':!ed b ooks a nd l etters h e h ad ~·rritten,
p lates o f p ictures u sed i n h is H isto~; o f D a nbury ~ a nd a c h air 3 ailey
h ad o wned.
S tephen C ollins, B ditorial P age E .: itor a t ' The U e \>TS T iMes .
1
l ent me a s crap boo~c h e h ad s ecured y ears b efore f rom t :1e t ras h c an ,.
p ut t ogether b y B ailey h imself , c ontain ing a s hort a uto b iogr :r)hical
�d escription. £-Irs. S chling m ade a vailable t:.1e r aany p ictures t he
museur.1 h eld o f l ate 1 9th c entury D anbury anC. so:-:te oL~ c opies o f t he
D anbury p aper" T':.y a unt l oaned me s ome p enny p os-tcards p icturing
D anbury d uring t he 1 9th c entury"
N O'\'! t he p roblem c ame o f ho>..r t o p ut i t a ll t ogether.
L orraine
O stergren, t he o ther museur.:t i ntern ,. a nd I d ecided t o s ee o ther
m useums a nd ex~1.ibi t s t o g et a n i dea. ~--!e t ook t hree f ield t rips.
T he f irst N as t o C ooperstmm 1 ~Je\J Y ork v 1here w e l ooked a t t he J ames
F enimore C ooper h ouse, a nJ. sa\•T h ou t o u se p hotographs i n a n e xhibit.
T he s econd t rip \ vas t o ;: · ystic _, C onnecticut t t7here we l ooked a t a
:
n u.wer o f m aritirile e xhibits , a nd m useum o fficials e xPlained r estora-tion ~_)rocesses o f m useum a rtifacts t o u s. '.rhe l ast t rip T,1as t o
S turbridge V illage i n 1 lassachusetts" r re f ound i t i nterestinq i n i ts
r eplication o f a Ne\·T E ngland t m•m! t~1ough i t d ealt H ith a n e arlier
p eriod t han ,,Je h ad i n m ind.
·,-·1 ith t he c ulmination o f t his 'i•Tork 1 a nd 'l.oTith t he e ncouragei!lent
a nd su!_:>port o f > Irs. S chling 1 D r. J anick a nd D r. ~:arner 1 I \rJas a t.le
t o p ut t ogether a s uccessful e xhibit. T he m usema i nternship g ave
me a n a ppreciation f or M useun ~vorl\: I h ad n ever h ad. b efore. I t
a llm•Ted me t o u se s ome o f t he b asic h istory s kills I h ad a cquired
a fter f our y ears a t ~aesconn, s ince i t r equired t he u se o f p rimary
s ources a nd a k nm-Tledge o f ho~~ t o r esearch.
I t a lso l eft o pen t o
me t he r eal p ossibility o f c ontinuing i n m useum '\'TOrk a t so:r~.e f uture
d ate.*
* For i nformation r egarding museUt-n \11ork a s a p rofession . s ee C LIO
Volum.e 2 ~ # 4 ~~
' 'Help ~ranted . : :1istory I \ajors t o D isplay T alents i n
n usemf\ T.Jork b y D r. T ruman .7-L ~-:rarner"
�
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Vol. 03, num. 1, Clio - 1975
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1975
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Physical Dimensions
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2 pgs
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Title
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Report on a Museum Internship
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Alison Roth
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1193/LB1525.J83.pdf
615ce28f32e86432acc339d2c66b6a4f
PDF Text
Text
LB1525.J83
�LB1525.J83
�LB1525.J83
�LB1525.J83
�LB1525.J83
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
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Title
A name given to the resource
Selected reading problems of the slow learner on the fourth grade level.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Allegri, Norma E.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Reading
Reading (Elementary)
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB1525.J83">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LB1525.J83
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1960
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/2626/ms060_01_11_001_service.jpg
72a821761600a124dfc3f84afd1ba406
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/2626/ms060_01_11_002_service.jpg
f1f7de0c628d69aa18842b6268825722
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
John Allen Letter
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Allen, John
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1864-09-27
Subject
The topic of the resource
United States--History--Civil War, 1861-1865--Personal narratives
Civil War
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1174/LB1573.A44.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
LB1573.A44
�LB1573.A44
�LB1573.A44
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Some relationships between a child's sense of responsibility and his success in reading.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Allen, Nancy Elizabeth.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Reading (Elementary)
Reading, Psychology of
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB1573.A44">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LB1573.A44
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1963
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1266/LB1027.5.A64.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
LB1027.5.A64
�LB1027.5.A64
�LB1027.5.A64
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
The identification, application, and evaluation of the guidance appraisal procedures at Masuk High School.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Anderson, Frances.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Educational counseling
Educational counseling
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB1027.5.A64">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LB1027.5.A64
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1960
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1304/HE2791.S4.A51989_whole.pdf
220398c92e639dfaf400a11f8c28d810
PDF Text
Text
A T HESIS
PRESENTED TO THE G RADUATE FACULTY
OF WESTERN CONNECTICUT STATE UNIVERSITY
by
M ark Edward Anderson
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE
MASTER OF ARTS
For the ~ r a d u a f eD ivision
�T HE SHEPAUG VALLEY RAILROAD:
AN AMERICAN STORY
Mark Edward Anderson
Bantam, Connecticut
May, 1989
�SHEPAUG VALLEY RAILROAD
SERVICE AT GREATEST EXTENT
JULY 1872
Intermediate
Mileaqe
Station
Litchfield
Lake
Bantam
Morris
Romford
New Preston
Washington
Judd's Bridge
Roxbury (Chalybes)
Roxbury Falls
f Shepaug (Southbury)
Hanover Springs
I
{
Hawleyville
Stoney Hill (Plumtrees)
k Bethel
(via Danbury and Norwalk owned
tracks, leased to Shepaug)
Source:
Shepaug Valley Railroad
Public Timetable
Dated: As above
��TABLE
- - OF
CONTENTS
SHEPAUG VALLEY RAILROAD STATIONS
w i t h I NTERWDIATE MILEAGES SHOWN
. .......F r o n t i s p i e c e
1
MAP: WESTERN CONNECTICUT RAILROADS
I N THE LATE 1 800's
AN
- A mRICAN
. .............F r o n t i s p i e c e 2
STORY . ..............................P a g e s 1 - 6 9
A PPENDICIES:
Pages 70
-
83
-
86
1. PRO-RAILROAD PROPERTY OIJNERS
L ITCHFIELD, CONNECTICUT: 1 8 7 0
2 . PRO-RAILROAD LANDOWNING PETITIONERS
ROXBURY, CONNECTICUT: 1 8 6 9
3. PRO-RAILROAD LANDOLQIING P ETITIONERS
MORRIS, CONNECTICUT: 1 8 6 9
4 . WASHINGTON, CONNECTICUT PROPERTY OUNERS
GRANTING RIGHTS-OF-WAY TO SHEPAUG
1872
VALLEY RAILROAD: 1 8 7 0
-
5 . FOREIGN C A R MOVEMENTS; SHEPAUC-, L ITCHFIELD
AND NORTHERN RAILROAD: 1 8 9 5 - 1 8 9 8
6 . EXCERPTS: SHEPAUG. LITCHFIELD AND NORTHERN
RAILROAD ANNUAL REPORT: 1 8 9 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY: SOURCES CONSULTED
............... . P a g e s
84
�Prior to the mid-nineteenth century, Litchfield,
Connecticut had thrived as a major crossroads of two
post-colonial trunk routes, the New Haven to Albany and
Hartford to New York turnpikes.
This Yankee hill town
boasted several good hotels and taverns of reputation,
was seat of its namesake county and service center for many
surrounding, smaller settlements.
The stagecoach lines
that travelled the two turnpikes had used Litchfield as
a stopover and interchange point and had thus contributed
to the town a measure of prosperity.
Despite this, the
area's isolation, compared to later years, is astonishing.
In 1829, a traveller undertaking a journey from
Litchfield to New York by stage had a rigorous two-day
ordeal ahead of him.
He left Litchfield at three o'clock
on Tuesday, Thursday or Saturday morning and made his way
through New Milford to Danbury, where he and his fellow
passengers passed the night in a hotel.
The stage continued
at dawn the next day and was scheduled to arrive at the
pier in Norwalk that afternoon in time for the steamboat
connection to New York.
The fare was set at $3.25 and,
consuming several day's wages for a working man or clerk,
was expensive.'
illis is tin,
Freight shipments were similarly
Alfred S., 'Shepaug Epic" in - T he Lure
of the
- - Litchfield Hills, Vol. X , No. 3, Summer (June)
1949, pp. 5-7.
�expensive but were handled even less expeditiously.
If
Litchfield were to grow, it would need an all-weather,
overland, fast and reliable link to the markets its
products could exploit.
Water-borne transport was the premier mode of the era
but was seasonal and impractical in the Berkshire Hills.
Local rivers were too shallow to pass commercially signifi
cant navigation and the dramatic vertical drop of the
watershed mitigated against efficient canal construction
and operation.
Consequently, horse-drawn conveyance was
the state of transport's art for Litchfield's commerce
until 1849, when a very different kind of horse brought
new promise to the town.
The railroad was a product of the industrial revolution.
Whereas mankind had used water-borne and animal-
drawn transport from antiquity, the capture of steam lent
itself well to the mechanized commercial impulse of the
mid-1800's.
Powerful iron horses, running along their own
rights-of-way, speedily moved hitherto unheard of weight
and bulk with little regard for mud, snow, ice or extreme
temperatures.
Consequently, as the nation's rail system
expanded, enterprise nearer the railheads gained an
advantage.
It was, therefor, expedient for commercial
and civic elites to press for the inclusion of their towns
and interests along the burgeoning rail net.
In October
1849, the trains first came to Litchfield and the long
distance stage coaches, unable to compete, either ceased
�operations or were relegated to "feeding" the railroads
from areas yet untrod by the iron horses.
The Naugatuck Railroad had first reached Litchfield
en route
--
from Devon and Waterbury to Wolcottville (today's
Torrington) and Winsted.
The economic benefit of the line
was a disappointment for Litchfield, however, in great
part because geography had played an impish trick on the
town, which is large in area and topographically varied.
There was some 600 feet of elevation to overcome on the
six mile trek between the rail depot in East Litchfield,
hard by the Naugatuck River, and the town's commercial
center, perched in the highlands.
The diseconomies of
this arduous, team-drawn connection to the railroad were
soon apparent and concerns located along the rail line
in the valley prospered, while Litchfield and its hinterland
in the hills did not.
Without the stages' stimulation, the
commercial life of the town center slumped, its vitality
gone off to the Naugatuck Valley.
The best hope for
renewed prosperity, most believed, would be to bring rail
service into the town center.
Towards this end, Litchfield
would certainly have its champions.
In 1860, several leading citizens of Litchfield had
approached the General Assembly in Hartford and been granted
a charter incorporating the Litchfield County Branch Railroad and were authorized to raise capital for the
construction of their road which would run thus:
�"(from) some point at or near the Naugatuck
Railroad, in the towns of Plymouth (today's
Thomaston), Litchfield or Torrington; thence
running westerly to the Housatonic Railroad,
passing through the towns of Litchfield,
Warren, Washington, New Milford and Kent,
or either of them, and reaching said Housatonic
Railroad at some oint in said towns of New
Milford or Kent.
11
4
Among the local boosters supporting the new line were
Litchfield's Henry R. Coit, George M. Woodruff and Henry
W. Buel, all of whom we will hear more later.
The
charter was granted with the proviso attached that, should
the sum of $50,000 not be spent upon the line's construction within three years, the corporation would be void
and its authority revoked.
In any event, perhaps due to
the distractions of the Civil War, the road was never
built, but the flame of commercial optimism that had begun
to spread across the country prior to the war was never
doused.
As the tide of the conflict had swung in the
Union's favor, men of vision had begun to look beyond
the hostilities, marshalling their energies for more
gainful pursuits.
In 1863, Edwin McNeill, Major, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, railroad builder, Litchfield native and ambitious,
progressively minded modern, had returned from his duties
to
recuperate in his home town.
McNeill viewed the stunted
condition of Litchfield's commerce and began to seek support
locally for the surveying, construction and operation of
a railroad that would serve the Town Center and provide
direct passenger and freight connections wi,th the population,
2 ~rivate- -of Connecticut, Vol . V. , June 23, 1860,
Laws
p. 382.
�transshipment and industrial centers of Southern Connecticut
and New York.
To be fair, the idea of a railroad approaching
Litchfield from the south and west dated from 1837, when
interested parties had commissioned an exploratory survey
of prospective routes.
In the 1 8501s, the Litchfield Branch
and other rail surveys were undertaken, but the necessary
equation of technology, capital, plan and people did not
equal action until the late 1860's.
Indeed, the technological
and financial wherewithal to build a road through such
difficult terrain as the Berkshire Foothills may not have
been economically available before the Civil War.
Now,
thought Major McNeill, the time had come, but his first
option was not a Shepaug River route, but one of gentler
grades and fewer miles and curves.
McNeill had first sought, under the auspices of the
Boston, Hartford and Erie Railroad, to construct a connector
line between Litchfield and the Naugatuck Railroad at
Waterbury, twenty miles south.
This plan had great promise,
as the Major sought to run the tracks through Litchfield
to Massachusetts, making a connection there with the Boston,
Hartford and Erie's line to the West.
George Flynn credits
McNeill with an understanding of the value to Litchfield
of location on a through rail route rather than a stubended feeder line, and points out that the Major had always
planned routes with immediate or eventual connections at
both ends.
Regardless, the reasons for the failure of the
�Waterbury scheme are hard to ascertain, but there is some
evidence that the Naugatuck Railroad, fearing competition
for its service at East Litchfield, may have sabotaged the
plan. 3
Stymied here, McNeill went once again to his maps,
and settled on a second route for his railroad.
It would
travel southwest along the natural drainage plan of Bantam
Lake, Connecticut's largest natural body of water, and follow
the lake's outlet, the Bantam River, to its confluence with
the Shepaug.
From there it would follow the Shepaug to its
mouth on the Housatonic, bridging that, and then follow
Pond Brook to Hawleyville, where it would connect with the
Housatonic and the New York and New England Railroads.
McNeill's efforts were rewarded when this plan was chartered
by the General Assembly in 1866.
The project was named
"the Shepaug Valley Railroadnand work began towards enlisting
financial support for construction.
In McNeill's plan, the towns along the line would raise
a great share of the railroad's initial capital, partly
from private investment, but substantially from municipal
subscription.
True to the traditions of New England govern-
ment, this meant passing motions in town meetings.
It
would seem that simple majorities of those voters present
would have sufficed to approve the stock purchases, but the
3
See Champlin, John, The Chronicles of Sirrom, pamphlet,
in t hecollection of the Litchfield ~ istoricalSociety,
Litchfield, Connecticut.
4 ~pecial- -of Connecticut, Vol. VI, June 30, 1866,
Laws
p. 96.
�General Assembly had stipulated that a two-thirds majority,
with the yea voters representing greater than half of the
municipality's Grand List, would be necessary for the
passage of these motions.
The broadly based support that would be needed to
carry these issues would unite progressively minded
commercial and civic leaders with surplus generating farmers,
whose produce would command a good price in rail served
markets.
This was the target audience that McNeill intended
for his 1868 prospectus:
"The aggregate fall of the Shepaug River from
Bantam Lake to the mouth of the Shepaug is 800
feet. Lakes tributary to the river furnish a
natural reservoir of a capacity of 2,000 acres.
The volume of water, its great fall and the
command without cost of 2,000 acres of flowage,
designate this as the best stream in the state
for manufacturing purposes. Its close proximity
to the Pennsylvania coal fields as compared with
other sections of New England, is a reasonable
guarantee that the establishment of factories
would follow, immediately, the opening of the road. 5
I!
Existing commerce in the Shepaug Valley would have led
no one to dispute McNeill's unabashed boosterism, and the
arrival of the railroad could only serve to expand the markets
available for local products.
Indeed, for a valley supporting
fewer than 7,000 inhabitants in the 1870 census, the range
of economic activity was impressive.
There was high grade iron in the Litchfield Hills with
the operation at Mine Hill in Roxbury yielding the particularly valuable siderite ore, widely sought after for
J
Flynn, George J., "Puritan Valley Line" in Railroad
Magazine, Vol. 45, No. 3 , April 1948, p. 50.
�surgical tools and precision instruments.
At other sites,
extensive deposits of marble and granite were easily
accessible near the surface.
Well stocked ice houses
thrived alongside the 2,000 acres of lake surface advertised
in McNeill's prospectus, and a lucrative garnet industry
near Roxbury Falls provided pre-carbon paper America with
copy transfer capability.
Silica was mined for paint,
sandpaper and grinding, while many saw mills, numbering
ten in Roxbury alone, provided lumber for construction.
Yet, all of the valley's commerce was not in raw materials.
Manufacturing was considerably developed.
An extensive hatting industry, which had had its main
markets in the South disrupted by the Civil War, was once
again expanding.
A tannery, well capitalized by the
heavy war-time demand for saddlery, flourished in Litchfield.
From Morris, the Burgess Rifle, a hand held sharpening tool
for farm and home improvements, was shipped throughout
the country and overseas.
The Bronson Plow Company shipped
its wares from Roxbury to the homesteaders of the Great
Plains and a profitable brass foundry hoped to challenge
the Naugatuck Valley from its facilities in the Chalybes
section of Roxbury.
Other foundries were operating in
Bantam, Washington and Litchfield while local coopers
supplied much of southern Connecticut with barrels.
Agriculture and tourism played their part in the
area's prosperity as well.
Locally grown grain kept several
grist mills busy and the dairy industry had a surplus of
�perishable products that could best move to market in
ice-cooled rail cars.
In addition, fruit and cigar
tobacco were solid cash crops.
Vacationers were another
"cash crop", as the high lakes and rivers of the area
promised "malaria free; no mosquitos" holidays to city
dwellers and many inns, camps and lodges had been opened
to attract their "custom" or business, as we would say
today.6
This is certainly a picture of a vibrant and
healthy region, poised, as its most ambitious supporters
had hoped, for "a bright industrial age . ..which they
dreamed would rival the neighboring Naugatuck Valley, the
world's brass center, in the strength of its manufacturing
output. I1 7
Despite this, support for such an expensive and
radically new idea as a railroad was slow to develop, and
McNeill surveyed the route out of his own pocket.
It was
here that the Major first met face-to-face with grass roots
opposition to his project.
Walking along the Shepaug
riverbed one morning, several angry farmers, brandishing
firearms, challenged his progress.
"Come on boys", McNeill
is reported to have responded, "I've smelt powder before! I, 8
All accounts of the incident record that the farmers did
not shoot, and McNeill lived to build his railroad, but
6 ~ h e ew Haven Register, clipping (undated except 1874
N
in the collection of the Litchfield Historical Society.
7~lynn,
bid.,
cit., pp. 46-7.
p. 47.
�first there were some formidable obstacles to overcome.
Although Major McNeill was a man of means and an
extraordinary engineer and propagandist for his cause,
his expertise was not in finance or business.
He was an
operations man, comfortable with blueprints, engineering
problems and manpower management.
McNeill had sufficient
business acumen, however, to leave the commercial dimensions
of the project to others more exercised in those fields
than he.
The pro-railroad men who gathered around the
cause of the line sought to exploit the Shepaug Valley
and, in that, their expertise perfectly complemented
McNeill's.
This was the braintrust that would mobilize
support in the towns and build the railroad, but even such
an ambitious group of modernizers would encounter stubborn
resistance from many quarters.
Despite the failure of firearms to derail the planning
of the road, opposition would prove stiff, falling into
three broad categories:
nativist.
religious, "Yankee-practical" and
The anti-railroad camp had tradition and inertia
going for it, and overcoming such stasis is always the
innovator's burden.
On the other hand, the fragmented
nature of their camp worked against the opposers, for
coalitions against issues are most always more fragile
than those of a positive, goal directed nature.
Religion was more of a force in the Connecticut of
the 1860's than it is today.
Many local residents thought
snorting, fire spitting iron horse was of the devil,
�j
,7
spewing brimstone from its stack as it made its way
through the once peaceful countryside.
Indeed, this group
would be nearly impossible for the railroad builders to
win over, since, no matter how thoroughly one searched
Scripture, there was no mention of railways or steam power
to be found.
Another objection, and a typically Yankee one at that,
was from farmers who feared that cinders and sparks from
the locomotives would set fire to their crops and buildings
and that the commotion would spook their livestock.
The
railroad builders could conceivably persuade these people
to not actively work or vote against the railroad, since
the railroad could guarantee the value of their property
and stock.
In addition, profit could be found in expanded
markets for produce or the sale of land or materials for
railway construction.
The nativist objection to the railroad was, perhaps,
the greatest threat to the project, as it played on the
fears that the pristine valley would be flooded with
"foreigners and 'smart city alecks' bent on relieving" the
locals of their cash, farms and way of life.'
Many
foreigners, mostly Germans under labor contracts, had for
years been working in the iron mines and furnaces of
Roxbury, taking rooms in the then thriving Chalybes section
of the town, beneath Mine Hill.
These Germans were, by
and large, an industrious, law abiding lot.
Some were
working to amass a nest egg and then return to Germany
illis is tin,
0.
i t , p. 6.
�when their contract expired.
Others had hopes of remaining
in America and earning a substantial stake to help them get
started in the new land.
Yet, despite this picture of civil and purposeful
industry, some local circles harbored keen resentments.
Perhaps strange language, religion, ethnic customs or social
habits compounded this suspicion of the foreign born.
It
could be that nativetea-totallers objected to the cultural
role of intoxicating drink, especially beer for the
Germans.
Maybe the men folk of Roxbury feared that their
women would be led astray by exotic Casanovas.
Regardless,
a prominent Roxbury resident of the day mentions nothing
in his diary of any social contact with anyone of an
obviously German surname, despite the fact that the man
owned the town's most prosperous saloon in Chalybes.
As far as "smart city alecks" were concerned, the
slick, mercenary, jaded values of city life were an
anathema to many local residents.
This was still an age
in which a substantial percentage of the population lived
and died within a day's ride of their birthplace.
People
from New York or New Haven were, except for language, as
alien as the Germans.
This intrusion into Roxbury's
idyllic world was a fearsome thing, a culture shock in
an era of limited horizons, and the railroad was threatening
to push those horizons back uncomfortably far.
To counter
these reservations, the railroad builders offered heretofore unimaginable prosperity in a new industrial age,
�hoping that many, especially the young, would opt to
chance the unknown.
Thus, the opposition to the rail
project was certainly potent, and may have succeeded in
killing it off, had it not been for the skill and
perseverence of McNeill and his colleagues.
The cause of the new rail line had, as previously
mentioned, found support among civic leaders in Litchfield
and, on April 2 5, 1869, the Shepaug Valley Railroad Company
was incorporated in that town.
Among the officers and
directors elected that day were several archetypal "experts"
of what would come to be known as "progressive mind".
President of the line was J. Deming Perkins, who was
also serving as President of the Litchfield Village Improvement Society.
Perkins, like McNeill, was a man who had no
reservation about using his own resources to advance a
worthy cause towards modernization.
It was Perkins who
installed gas lights on the Litchfield Green to prove
their efficiency. 10
Managing the financial affairs of the railroad would
be the erstwhile backer of the Litchfield County Branch
Railroad, Henry R. Coit, of the National Bank of Litchfield.
Coit had previously sold stock subscriptions for the ongoing construction of the Union Pacific Railroad in the
West, doing so with a naked boosterism that was quite
possibly the equal of McNeill's.
There is no doubt that
Coit's agency on behalf of the Union Pacific did much to
1 °~lynn,
cit., p. 50.
�bring the idea of railroad related prosperity into the
minds of Litchfield's citizens.
But it was McNeill, the civil engineer, who spurned
the offer of chairmanship of the board, preferring the
title of Superintendent, giving him control of the day to
day, "nuts and bolts" operation of the line.
As McNeill
continued to plan for construction, his colleagues set out
to cultivate influential support in the towns along the
route.
The railroad would pass through the towns of
Litchfield, Morris, Washington, Roxbury, Southbury and
Newtown.
T he last two towns were excused from subscription
to the railroad's stock as the new route would offer them
little in economic return, serving mainly as a geographic
bridge between the four more northern communities and the
rail trunk line connection in Newtown.
Newtown, since the 1840's a rail town, would serve
the Shepaug at Hawleyville primarily as an interchange
with other roads with very little revenue traffic for the
new line originating or terminating there.
Southbury, on
the other hand, would originate traffic at its remote
station, to be known as Shepaug, but no agent would be
on duty there.
The station was to be located near the
mouth of the line's namesake river in the trans-Shepaug
section of the town.
In fact, this area was so
poorly
accessible from Southbury proper that, in the 1 9501s,
Southbury would cede the entire trans-Shepaug area to
�the town of Bridgewater.
It is curious that, ninety years
before, the Shepaug station had been used mainly by
Bridgewater farmers shipping milk and by stagecoach lines
that connected there for Southville and the center of
Bridgewater.
In any case, in return for such marginal
service, which would have overwhelmingly benefitted a
neighboring town, the railroad builders made no request
for Southbury's financial support.
It was Litchfield, Morris, Washington and Roxbury,
the towns that had long commercially exploited the Shepaug
River watershed, that would be asked to invest, as
communities, in the construction of the railroad.
In
Litchfield, where the initiators of the project led public
opinion, the town meeting of December, 1868 passed the
railroad funding proposal by a vote of 434 to 151, far
better than the mandated two-thirds and with substantially
greater than fifty percent of the Grand List having voted
on the yea
side.
What is more, if the nay votes from
East Litchfield, near the Naugatuck Railroad, were discounted, the vote would have been nearly twenty to one in
favor of the proposition.
Unlike Litchfield, which had passed the bond issue
at its first and only town meeting, Washington was to need
two votes to approve the expenditure.
Despite long
standing interest among certain town elites for a railroad, there was a substantial traditional element that had
railed against this unwelcome invasion
by modernity.
�The debate raged in the local press, leading one younger
citizen to write that, should the elders of the town want
their children and grandchildren to stay on and not move
west, more opportunity would have to be forthcoming.
Otherwise, he concluded, the children's bones would never
rest beside their elders'.
11
On February 13, 1869, Washington voted, 185 to 120,
in favor of the project, but the two-thirds majority was
not gained.
Buoyed by their near success, however, the
supporters called another vote for March 4 and here the
measure was approved, 255 to 109, with the Grand List and
majority provisos satisfied.
McNeill and his associates
now had two of the four targeted towns invested in their
enterprise, but the final two would not join the fold without protracted and divisive struggles.
Known before 1859 as the South Farms section of
Litchfield, Morris had, in that year, been incorporated
into a free standing town.
Many in South Farms had sought
such a move since the late 1700's and local resentment over
perceived stalling on their request by Litchfield may have
contributed to opposition in Morris towards the Litchfield
initiated railroad.
It may have been that Litchfield had
thwarted the autonomy move from fear of losing tax revenue
and now, it seemed, Litchfield's elites were once again
sticking their hands in Morris' pockets.
What had changed,
however, in the scores of years, was the economic profile
of the community.
itchfi field
Morris had previously been a nearly
Enquirer, initialed letter to editor,
February 25, 1869.
�exclusive agricultural area, but considerable industry had
taken root by the 1860's and a new class of commercial
burgher had risen.
These people sought to engage the new
technology to extend their markets and took on local
traditionalists to seek funding for the railroad.
It was
here, in Morris, that the railroad would find its most lyric
champion, John Champlin, who had become so incensed by the
intransigence of many of his neighbors that he published,
under a pseudonym, a bitingly satirical pamphlet, The
Chronicles of Sirrom, in which he ridiculed anti-railroad,
anti-modern sentiment.
Borrowing from the style of the
roman - du clef, or "keyed novel", Champlin castigated those
who would bring darkness on the "Valley of the Shippog".
Pitting the Ydawaix (wide awakes) and their leader
the Rabbi Benhaton against the Oldphogiz (old fogies), led
by Rawbutt the Pitchite, Champlin outlined the struggle
among the Sirromites (Morrisites) t o build the King's
Highway (railway) down to the Ouestennuc (Housatonic).
Were it never to be built through Morris, Champlin saw ruin
for his community.
The Chronicles prophesized:
"And all the lands on the King's Highway
Flowed with milk and honey, and the
People thereof ruled all the nations
Roundabout.
"But the land of Sirrom was desert and laid wastel2
And there was no habitation of man therein."
Champlin's unflattering references to those against
the railroad may well have alienated as many as were rallied
to the cause. Prominent opponents of the line were given
1 2~hamplin,
cit..
�such names as "Inryeguzzle the Swampite", "Bilklack the
Evertite" and "Aumunstun whose surname is Blowah", commemorating the non-temperance, zealous frugality and
stentorian excesses of the targets.
There is also allusion
to the actions of the "men of the Valley of the Naugatog",
who sought to block the Shepaug Railway.
Chapter 11, Verse
7 of the Chronicles notes:
"And he (Inryeguzzle the Swampite) gathered
Together all the hosts of the Oldphogiz
And all the men of the Valley of the Naugattog
And arrayed them on the Hill (Litchfield)
Over against the Ydawaix and the men of the
Valley of the Shippog."l3
As socio-political satire, the Chronicles are a treasure
of local color.
In its thinly veiled references are
allusions to attitudes and conspiracies that might well
have been lost to history had Champlin not been struck by
the muse.
Despite this literary torch, however, there were
many potent issues to which the anti-railroad bloc could
rally in the debate.
First of all, Morris was the least developed of the
four towns and the relatively few commercial elements in
the small community had had reservations about the plan
to run the line's tracks through Smokey Hollow, in the
remote northwest, some five miles from the town center.
Questions had been raised asking why the rail line could
not have swung south of Bantam Lake to serve the town
center, rejoining the surveyed route at Smokey Hollow or
further south.
Records of this particular debate, if any
�survive, have not been recovered, but several thoughts
come to mind from the evidence collected.
The alternative
route would eliminate Bantam, a thriving mill area, and
Lake station, the line's proposed major icing point, from
mainline service.
Morris did not have the developed
commerce to tempt Perkins and Coit to a more southerly
route.
Regardless, the industry Morris did have was
located along the Bantam River, which flowed through Smokey
Hollow, and had been since the heyday of water driven mills
earlier in the century.
In addition, sparsely populated
and lightly developed Morris may not have had enough of a
tax base to underwrite bonds sufficient for the greatly
increased track mileage proposed.
Finally, unlike other
towns on the line, the solidarity of progressively minded
elements may have been eroded by the line placement issue,
leaving the vote on funding not one of two competing blocs,
vying for an in undecided middle, but an amorphous, atomized
affair, with individuals voting on the issue for solely
particularistic reasons.
With such impediments in place, the process of gaining
approval of railway construction expenditures was a prolonged ordeal.
Morris had set a negative precedent in May
of 1867 by voting down the previously mentioned scheme of
McNeill's to build a Waterbury connector through the town
for the Boston, Hartford and Erie Railroad.
It is ironic
that this road would have served the center of Morris and
postponed, perhaps forever, the building of a line along
�the Shepaug.
But, in any event, eighteen months later,
in December of 1868, Morris had a town meeting for the
express purpose of authorizing the selectmen to buy 213
shares, at $100.00 apiece, of capital stock in the Shepaug
Valley Railroad.
Speaking in favor of the motion were the
satirist Champlin, State Representative William Deming and
Monroe Throop, local miller and businessman.
In this vote,
the yeas carried, 95 to 76, but failed to gain the twothirds.
Encouraged by this near success, the railroad
group called another meeting in January of the new year,
but this time proposed to subscribe to the railroad in an
amount equal to five percent of the Grand List.
This was,
no doubt, an effort to present a self-limiting device on
the expenditures, in that the cash outlay could only increase if property values rose, the rise in real value being
a major selling point for the railroad camp.
This new
strategy, concocted to reassure those whose hesitance was
based on fear for their assets, worked part way, with the
vote carrying by more than two-thirds, but the Grand List
requirement had once again fallen short.
This motion lost,
the supporters immediately filed a petition, many of the
signatories now, for the first time, being non-voting
property owners, such as women or non-residents.
The great
success of this petition led to another town meeting in
October of 1869 during which the matter was finally carried
by a vote of 91 to 38 with the Grand List requirement satisfied.
Yet, the issue was not a closed matter.
The town
�did not have sufficient liquid cash on hand to buy the
shares outright, the money would have to be borrowed at
interest, and this last hurdle nearly brought the long
struggle to naught.
A town finance meeting was called for December 1869.
One can imagine the anxiety Perkins, Coit and McNeill, a s
well as their local associates, felt as the meeting
approached.
To their advantage, the two-thirds and fifty
percent rules did not apply for this meeting.
The initial
capitalization of the line was perilously tight, and any
income not forthcoming from the towns would have to be
made up through an expanded public offering.
With the
already thin tempers of the town strained over the bitter
fight to approve funding, the idea of borrowing money at
interest to pay for stock in an unproved enterprise tested
Yankee values severely.
On a cold, forbidding December
night in 1869, the electors of Morris, after acrimonious
debate, voted 30 to 29 to authorize the borrowing of money
to purchase the originally sought 213 shares.
The matter
had passed despite the seemingly marginal service and
certainly remote depot the town would get for its investment.
Perhaps enough Yankee minds had decided that half a
loaf was better than none, or that a spur track to the town's
commercial center might follow railroad stimulated growth.
In any event, Morris bought part of a railroad.
Laura Stoddard Weik, in her 1959 history of the town,
recorded the residual bitterness in Morris that lasted
�well past the railroad meetings.
It seems the town had
been in the habit, since 1859, of electing two Democratic
and one Republican selectmen.
The tally had always been
routine, with the Democrats carrying a predictable majority.
In the 1870 elections, however, forty Republicans and almost
as many Democrats bolted their party tickets.
Angry voters,
it seems, had punished those running for local office, yet
had held to the party line in the voting for statewide
offices.
According to Mrs. Weik, "this queer political
chowder grew out of the railroad difficulties.
One lady
remarked before the election, 'The Democrats are working
day and night to defeat their candidate and the Republicans
are just as busy beating their nominee'. "I4
But, despite
bitter victory in Morris, the railroad's supporters had
worse trouble delivering Roxbury into the camp.
Roxbury in 1868 was a prosperous, bustling community
with more work to offer than people to do it.
The resulting
influx of strangers had brought a frontier ambiance to the
town, far different from the staid Yankee culture of
neighboring communities.
As previously mentioned, nativist
fears were rampant in Roxbury.
The large Baptist church
in Chalybes was a font of fundamental religious objection
to modernization and the land owning Yankee farmers of the
town feared for the value of their property.
Despite the
commercial promise a railroad line would offer, the considerable strength of the objectors was magnified by the two-thirds
14weik, Laura Stoddard, One Hundred -ears - History of
YMorris, Connecticut, 1859-1959, Morris Centennial ~ o m m i t t z ,
1959, p. 21.
�rule and their control of much real property in the town.
Although incapable of winning a majority against the railroad, the anti-railroad camp seemed to have enough numbers
to perpetually block endorsement of the construction bonds.
To overcome this, Perkins, Coit and McNeill had to choose
clever and resourceful allies.
Colonel Albert L. Hodge was such a man; West Point
alumnus, farmer, businessman, road commissioner, retailer,
saloon keeper, iron mine director, church elder, state
legislator and Roxbury's registrar of voters.
There was
hardly any local civic or commercial endeavor in which
Hodge did not have a hand.
He was also a fastidious
record keeper and the entries in his day book lend a
fascinating perspective on the struggle to bring Roxbury
into the railroad camp.
He was meticulous in his job as road commissioner,
often travelling as far as Bridgewater, in all weather, to
assess road conditions.
in Chalybes.
He kept a well patronized saloon
He owned a dry goods store there and was a
fervent marketer of Mine Hill iron and granite, often going
to New York, New Haven and Washington, D.C. to secure orders.
As a farmer he reported that it had taken him three days
to transfer a rail carload of oats from New Milford to his
barn in Roxbury. l 5
Time was money to a man of Hodge's
pursuits, and the new railroad line could only serve to
Book, in the collection of
1 5 ~ o d g e f lbert L.,
A
The Hodge Memorial Library, Roxbury, Connecticut.
�make his businesses more efficient and profitable. In mid1868, Hodge noted that railroad surveyors were working
near Chalybes. l 6
After that, references to Coit, Perkins
and railroad matters appeared increasingly often in the
day book and Albert Hodge invested himself in the cause
of the railway in what would prove to be a prolonged fight.
Roxbury's first three votes on the railroad funding
brought frustration for Colonel Hodge and his associates.
On April 24, 1869, voters cast 136 yeas and 86 nays, failing
to gain the two-thirds by a swing of twelve votes.
On
the second vote, May 10, the proposal failed again, but by
a swing of only two votes, 157 to 81.
A third meeting was
scheduled for May 22 a nd, if the form of the other three
towns was to be followed, the next vote would put the
railroad camp "over the top".
To the astonishment of all,
however, the third vote showed a slippage in support, to
153 to 84.
Although the decrease was small, the psycho-
logical effect must have been significant.
No further
town meetings were called and the Enquirer, in an editorial
of May 27, 1869, expressed its alarm at both the outcome
and the apparent paralysis in the railroad camp after the
third vote:
"The result of Saturday's (5/22/69) vote was...
a change of three in the wrong direction. We
frankly state our surprise at this unexpected
result; but we cannot believe that the friends
of this measure can let it fail when so near
success. We have not heard whether another
meeting has yet been called."17
1 7~itchfieldEnquirer, May 27, 1869.
�Indeed, no further meetings were called until December
of that year, a gap of nearly seven months, during which
time Hodge and his cohorts may have let local tempers
ease while seeking new support for their cause.
Finally,
on December 11, 1869, Roxbury voted 112 to 42 in favor of
the motion.
With this, all four towns were now in line for
subscription to the railroad, but, even now, all was not
finished.
It may have been an afterthought, but the town of
Warren had been "odd-man out" in the late 1860's as the
Shepaug Valley Railroad began to organize.
Having been
disappointed by the failure of the Litchfield County Branch
road earlier in the decade, local leaders in Warren sought
to muster support for a branch line of Major McNeill's
railroad, running from the confluence of the Shepaug
River and Bee Brook, in Washington, "to some suitable
point in Warren". l8
The General Assembly amended the
Shepaug Valley's charter in July, 1870 and authorized
Warren to subscribe municipally to the venture, but the plan
would never come to fruition and Warren remained railroadless, despite the potential business of the Lake Waramaug
resorts.
So, in all, public bonding had pledged $209,000 to
stock; $107,000 in Litchfield; $22,000 in Morris; $53,000
in Washington and $27,000 in Roxbury.
Edwin McNeill had
estimated that it would cost $850,000 to build and start
Isspecial - -of Connecticut, Vol. VI, July 10,
Laws
1870, p. 790.
�operation of the railroad.
To meet this figure, stock
was offered for public sale to private citizens and the
State of Connecticut extended a $400,000 mortgage on the
accrued assets of the chartered road.
Cash was on hand
but now the builders had to secure the right-of-way.
Some
pro-line individuals donated land for construction but many
doubters and opportunists pressed hard bargains on the
railroad, with their main stipulations focusing on the
fencing-in and maximum width of the right-of-way.
Orin B. Seward of Roxbury demanded that the builders
"shall fence the road properly and make me suitable
crossing and maintain the fences perpetually " .
Farmers
Thomas Ryan and Oliver Tyrell would cede only 25 and 35
foot widths of passage across their properties, despite
the railroad's desire to gain a minimum fifty foot width.
Burton Hodge, a descendant of the Colonel, recalled in 1948
that a board fence had, at one time, been in place along
the entire route.
In fact, the original construction
budget allowed $75,000 for such work and, in Roxbury's
case, in a town that had taken four votes to pledge only
$27,000 to the road's total capitalization.
Regardless,
Burton Hodge felt that the good citizens of Roxbury had
gotten their money's worth out of that fence, as the
barrier's integrity was almost always compromised, whether
set afire by locomotive sparks or "borrowed by the plank"
lg~lynn,
O
L
J
cit., p. 50.
�for structural repairs to local barns and sheds. 20
McNeill's projected budget of $850,000 was to fall
considerably short.
Beset with all sorts of cost overruns,
the railroad was built to the greater degree on credit,
the builders borrowing against the value of the road once
opened.
With this credit, they now ordered materials and
hired work teams.
These orders included cross ties from
local contractors and rails, to be delivered half to
Hawleyville and half to East Litchfield, so construction
could commence from both ends-of-line.
A sub-contract was
let to a Pennsylvania masonry firm and three thirty-ton
locomotives built by Rogers of Patterson, New Jersey were
ordered, to be named Shepaug, Waramaug and Weantinauq.
Deliveries of traprock were made, first by horse cart, so
that the gandy dancers (track gangs) would find a ready,
stable and well-drained roadbed on which to lay the track.
The track width was to be standard, four feet eight and
one-half inches, to facilitate interchange with all major
trunk lines.
On October 26, 1870, construction began out
of Hawleyville.
Shortly thereafter, the Litchfield based
track gang began work, projecting a "meet" somewhere near
the Washington - - Roxbury line.
The blasting was done for
the Steep Rock tunnel in Washington and the crews kept
working through the winter, spring and summer of 1871.
The Hawleyville group laid track from the Housatonic
Railroad interlocking plant (junction) along and then across
�Pond Brook at its mouth on the Housatonic River, bridging
the river on a temporary wooden trestle, while workers
finished the permanent structure beside it.
Once across
the river, the track layers reached the location of the
Shepaug station in Southbury.
Then, gaining elevation as
they moved north from the Housatonic, followed an excavated
ledge above the west bank of the Shepaug until they reached
Roxbury Falls, where they built an agency station.
Con-
tinuing north along the river, the railroad found easier
going as it ran along the Shepaug's flood plain, reaching
Chalybes, where Roxbury's main agency station was raised.
Whereas the southern end construction gang had been
able to employ a proper locomotive, thanks to the interchange at Hawleyville, the Litchfield based group was at
a marked disadvantage, establishing a rail-isolated end-ofline in the center of Litchfield, five miles from the
nearest operating railhead.
Materials had to be carted
overland from East Litchfield on the Naugatuck Railroad
and delivered to often poorly accessible locations along
the surveyed route.
Working in the northern crew's favor,
however, was that their work was on a downgrade and loaded
railcars could be drawn along the newly laid track by ox
or horseteams, with gravity assisting the teamster.
The
lighter empties were easily returned to Litchfield or
intermediate staging points for reloading.
Thus, the Litchfield group was able to make good
progress.
Leaving the town center, the route swung
�southwest across Harris Plains and bridged the Bantam
River just north of its source on Bantam Lake.
Near here
was the large ice supply business of Miss Lucretia Deming
and the railroad established its Lake station here to ice
its milk cars.
The line then continued to Bantam Falls,
the thriving mill area, and a depot opened amongst the
enterprises that exploited the river's vertical drop there.
Keeping to the southern bank of the Bantam, the route
curled downgrade and southwest, cutting across the northwestern corner of Morris, where that town's long fought for
rail station was established in Smokey Hollow.
After that,
the railroad held to the southern bank of the river,
skirting the base of Mount Tom, and met the Shepaug River
at its confluence with the tributary Bantam.
Proceeding
now along the Shepaug, the rail line wound through the
Romford and New Preston sections of Washington, leaving
agency stations at both sites.
South of here, the river
relaxed somewhat, and the building crews found relatively
easier going along the flood plain, crossing to the northern
bank and following this into the Calhoun district of
Washington, to be soon renamed Washington Depot, where an
engine fueling and watering point was built next to the
town's main agency station.
After this, the route's course witnessed its most
dramatic scenery.
Leaving Washington's center, the route
veered due south, hugging the now west bank of the river
until it crossed it again just north of the Shepaug River's
�clamshell shaped oxbow beneath 500 foot Steep Rock.
The
crews did not attempt to follow the river here, but laid
the tracks through the curved 140 foot tunnel previously
blasted through the southern extension of the Steep Rock
outcropping.
The tracks then emerged in a downgrade
towards the settlement at Judd's Bridge in northern
Roxbury, where the line crossed to the west bank and from
where the Litchfield based crews could hear their
Hawleyville counterparts working some miles to the south.
It was October of 1871.
By late November, the two crews were working within
sight of each other.
One can easily imagine the emotion
involved, especially among those who had worked so hard to
bring this plan to fruition.
It is a pity that no record
of a "golden spike" ceremony has been recovered, for it is
not hard to believe that Colonel Hodge's Chalybes saloon
must have provided some stout refreshment for the occasion.
Now, for the first time, the road's locomotives could run
through to Litchfield.
The Enquirer reported that all the
town turned out to witness the arrival of the engine
Waramaug in the Litchfield town center.
Indeed, McNeill,
Perkins and Coit were the toast of the town that Yuletide,
but the road could not open for public revenue business
until it had been certified by the State Board of Railroad
Commissioners.
This inspection took place the week after
Christmas 1871 and, despite some reservations about the
roadbed not having settled fully due to icy conditions,
�the report was favorable.
Ready or not, the Shepaug
Valley Railroad was certified to open to the public on
New Year's Day 1872.
Was the railroad opened in haste?
Probably so, but
this was not an unusual way for the newly built railways
of the era to begin operations.
Writing in 1890, Civil
Engineer Thomas Curtis Clarke, drawing comparisons between
English and American practices in railway building
observed :
"There is one thing more which distinguishes
the American railway from its English parent,
and that is the almost uniform practice of getting
the road open for traffic in the cheapest manner
and in the least possible time, and then completing
it and enlarging its capacity out of its surplus
earnings, and from the credit these earnings give it. ,121
Indeed, a good stretch of the line, near Judd's Bridge,
had been laid in winter temperatures upon frozen and poorly
settled subroadbed which would provide poor foundation for
the track and trains that would roll over it.
Prudence
would have dictated an opening in the warmer months, but
the pressing need to generate income, after Clarke's
example, had carried the day.
All concerns for the right-of-way notwithstanding,
the railroad's first passenger ticket was sold to Mr.
E. W. Addis of Litchfield on the morning of January 1,
The capacity of the road's few passenger cars
'lclarke, Thomas Curtis, "The Building of a Railway",
in Clarke, - e t al., The American Railway, Castle Books,
Secaucus, New Jersey, 1988 (Facsimile Reprint of Original
1890 edition).
2 2~itchfeld Enquirer, January 4 , 1872.
i
�w as sorely taxed by the enthusiastic throngs who sought
to take part in the historic first trips of the new line.
The service called for the 32 mile run to be made in two
hours and thirty minutes, an average speed of just over
twelve miles per hour, a great improvement over 1829's
trial by stagecoach.
The line's first three engines, all
suffixed in "-aug", were said by one local wit to "aug-ur"
well for the future of the railroad. 23
It was to be, sadly,
Mr. Addis' account of the first trip on the road that would
prove, over the years, to have been the more clairvoyant.
It seems the first train's conductor, a Mr. Keeler, had
heard a strange noise under the coach and, partially
descending the steps to look under the moving car, was
struck by an overhanging branch and knocked from the train.
Addis continued that, except for bruises to his arm and
his dignity, the conductor was not hurt and the train had
stopped to allow him to climb back on board.
On a more promising note, the Enquirer's Washington
correspondent reported, in the January 4 edition, that
four car loads of coal had been delivered by the Shepaug
Valley to that town.
The writer was effusive, stating
that, thanks to the railroad, an order could now be sent
to New York and the consignment received long before the
"lumbering stage brings the bill from New Milford.
if the railroad will pay? "24
Who asks
B ut, in the same edition, there
�was a report of the first accident on the road.
It seems
that the tracks had spread on the iced-up roadbed near
Judd's Bridge and had derailed two freight cars that were
being pushed in front of 2 locomotives.
Nevertheless, the
mishap had prevented the "train from preceeding (sic) any
further, much to the annoyance of the passengers".2 5
A
gang of gandy dancers was dispatched to realign the
trackwork.
Despite this, the Shepaug Valley was acquiring symbols
of permanence.
The iron and masonry bridge across the
Housatonic opened in mid-January and, in July, a six-mile
extension from Hawleyville to Bethel, on the Danbury and
Norwalk Railroad, was opened, allowing direct service
between the Shepaug Valley and New York, via Norwalk.
This
was especially critical to the economic prospects of the
new line as its Hawleyville connection, the Housatonic
Railroad, had taken to charging predatory rates on interchange freight.
The exhorbitant costs of such shipping
prompted the Enquirer to seek its newsprint, once the Bethel
extension had opened, from a Norwalk vendor rather than the
Bridgeport firm with which it had previously done business.
It would have seemed that the Shepaug Valley Railroad was
now in charge of its own destiny, but extraneous events
would conspire against it.
The Shepaug Valley's economy was changing dramatically
in the early 1870's.
The great iron works at Roxbury
�failed in 1872, never to produce in volume again.
Schemes
were laid to transport ore from other sites to the furnaces
there, but none of these ever hatched.
Iron and steel
production had fled west, amidst the coal fields of
Pennsylvania, and, with the settlement of the Great Plains,
Pittsburgh was days closer for freight than was Connecticut.
The very way America did business was changing too, and
traditional New England was being left behind.
Einar Carlson and Ken Howell note that New England
enterprise, based on personal propriety and passed down
through generations of a family, was unable to keep up
with the era's advances in technology and management
science that the risk taking pioneers of the West so
eagerly embraced. 26
The railroad, seen in M cNeillls 1868
prospectus as a great exporter of manufactured goods,
would turn out to be a net importer, with agricultural
products being the overwhelming outbound freight.
de
Finally, as coup - grace, the nationwide economic
depression of 1873 cut revenues so drastically that the
railroad could not even pay the interest on a second
mortgage that the road had secured in February, 1872 to
cover operating expenses.
The state foreclosed on the
second mortgage and the road was sent into receivership.
The Panic of 1873 had brought a sense of pervasive
financial crisis which, no doubt, had kindled impatience
2 6~arlson,Einar W. and Kenneth T. Howell, Empire
Pequot Press, Old Chester, Connecticut,
1974, p. 207.
Over the Dam,
---
�in the State Treasurer's Office in Hartford.
Despite
this, local elites held to optimism over the long term
promise the road offered and probably saw the reorganization as a mere financial manouvre.
They were, after all,
in place and operating and aggressive advertising was
underway in the southern Connecticut and New York press,
seeking passenger business.
In all, twenty-five railroads
failed in the United States in 1873, and the Shepaug Valley,
having been opened prior to default, was one of the more
fortunate of that number.
Besides that, what local
booster, having staked his town's money and his own reputation, would favor abandoning the town to the second class
commercial limbo of railroadlessness.
Such was the civic
culture as the railroad ended its first life.
Its second
incarnation, as the Shepaug Railraod, would run until 1887.
The road's next sixteen years would see the maturation
of the line's freight and passenger business, and would
allow the payment of interest,if not principle, on the
staggering debt incurred during construction.
This volume
of traffic gave fair promise for the Shepaug's continued
operation, which must have gladdened the heart of Major
McNeill prior to his death in 1875.
Most important for the line's long term prospects,
though, was that this began the era of prospective
extension.
Although saddled with debt, the road had
shown that it was able to generate considerable income
and, should the end of track in Litchfield be extended to
�make a through connection with another road, the Shepaug's
future might be a bright one, indeed.
But, the Shepaug
itself was destitute and, despite the obvious promise of
extension, would have been hard pressed to raise any
further capital in the post-Panic 1870's.
But the road
might have had a benefactor who could have provided a
connecting road for it.
Albert Wadhams was very much Goshen's equivalent of
Roxbury's Colonel Albert Hodge.
Civic booster and appre-
ciator of a modern and commercially promising venture,
Wadhams undertook a fair amount of research on prospective
rail business in Goshen and its northern hinterland.
In
fhis An Exhibit of Estimates -or a Proposed Extension of
the Naugatuck Railroad, Wadham's petitioned that road's
board of directors and shareholders to undertake the
extension of their road's Waterbury to Watertown branch
to East Morris, Litchfield, Goshen, Cornwall Hollow P.O.,
Huntsville (site of Hunts Lyman Iron Company) and Falls
Village, where it would connect with the Housatonic Railroad. 27
By connection at Litchfield, the Shepaug would have
a northern outlet, but this was not a primary concern for
Wadhams.
His figures included heavy iron ladings at
Huntsville, but were almost entirely farm products otherwise.
The Naugatuck turned the petition down, probably
unwilling to build such a long new line at its expense for
Ll
Wadhams, Albert, An Exhibit of Estimates -or a
fof t h
,
Proposed Extension - - e ~ a u ~ a t u c k R a i l r o a dpamphlet in
the collection of the Litchfield Historical Society.
�one source of substantial originating traffic at Huntsville.
Besides that, the Housatonic Railroad had been shipping
Hunts Lyman Iron for decades, the metal being team hauled
for five miles to the railhead at Falls Village.
In short,
the Naugatuck was not interested in such a chancy proposition.
But the contrast between Colonel Hodge's and Mr.
Wadham's experiences illustrates well how the civic culture
had changed in but fifteen years.
First, the railroad hysteria of earlier years had
subsided. This iron-horse fever had been so widespread in
the immediate post Civil War years that Colonel Hodge and
his colleagues had been able to enlist their town's financial
support in the capitalization of the railway.
culture was more sober and hesitant now.
But the
The Panic of 1873
had had a lot to do with these changes and criticism of
rampant civic commercial venturism had appeared in'the
press, giving prudent New Englanders cause to reflect on
future endeavors.
in a
- - Day
Peter Lyon, in his 1968 book, - T o Hell
Coach, cites an 1873 New York Times editorial:
"There has been a railroad mania and the banks have
lent large sums of money on railroad bonds . ..
last year over six thousand miles of new railroads
were built, not five hundred miles of which were
really needed or can be turned to any profitable
use. The foreign markets have been glutted with
28
these schemes. Many gross swindles . .. have been
foisted upon their markets in the past two years ..."
In Connecticut alone, lenders held over $ 5 million in
poorly secured railroad construction bonds and, in 1877,
2 8 ~ h e ew - - - York Times, quoted in Lyon, Peter, - N
T o Hell
in a
--
Day Coach, J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1968,
p. 47.
�the General Assembly had acted to prohibit all future
municipal subscription to the capitalization of railways.
By 1882, then, when Mr. Wadhams was prepared to seek a
railroad for his town, the only option was to petition
existing roads to build new lines.
Of the two roads
local to Goshen, the Naugatuck volitionally would not
and the Shepaug financially could not undertake the
Wadhams' proposed line.
It would be interesting to know
if the Housatonic Railroad was ever approached, although
it is hard to imagine why that road would have had reason
to extend more than a spur to Huntsville, falling far
short of Goshen or Litchfield.
From the Shepaug's point of view, the failure of the
Wadhams' plan was a great pity as its success would have
fulfilled the ambitions of the late Major McNeill.
Yet,
despite this disappointment, the hopes of many to somehow
work a northern connection for the Shepaug would not die.
But, by the m id-18801s, the road had begun to show wear
and sufficient cash for maintenance and renewal was hard
to come by.
The road was still iron-railed in an age where
more durable steel was coming into use, and bridges needed
repair.
The three aging Rogers locomotives needed in-
creasingly frequent attention and the wooden crossties were
rotting beneath the track.
Yet, despite the debts and
troubles that weighed on this little line, powerful and
influential men had taken an interest in its fate, although as a footnote to a bigger story.
�T he move to consolidate Connecticut railroads under
one management had begun in 1872, with the formation of
the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, hereafter
called the "New Haven".
Building few railroad lines of
its own, the New Haven had begun slowly absorbing other
lines throughout southern New England in what would become
an effort to control all transport in the region.
For
financially strapped lines like the Shepaug, the promise
of new capital was indeed seductive but the price to be
paid was the loss of autonomy.
For many shareholders of
worthless Shepaug Valley or Shepaug issues, however, this
subtle distinction was evidently lost.
So it was, on
April 1, 1887, after a hard winter of high maintenance
outlay to keep operating, the Shepaug Railroad defaulted
on its interest payments and was taken over by the State
Treasurer as trustee for the bondholders who had received
the bankrupt line on February 18.
In March, 1887, the
General Assembly had granted a new charter to those bondholders and, on June 1, 1887, the Shepaug, Litchfield and
Northern Railroad came into being.
There was, however,
some continuity, as the venerable Colonel Hodge was listed
as a director of the road and Major McNeill's grandson,
Alexander, was in its employ.
It was, indeed, amazing
that the road had held off foreclosure for so many years.
Despite, for instance, respectable net earnings of $19,848
for the year 1880, the road had still been liable on the
seven percent bonds and their overdue interest of $98,000.
�The continued operation of the line had probably been
politically expedient until such time as a substantial
reorganization could be arranged.
But what of that "and
Northern" at the end of the new line's name?
The charter of the Shepaug, Litchfield and Northern
Railroad had been granted to a group of men among whom were
several names long associated with the road:
Edwin and
Alexander McNeill (Major's son and grandson), Henry Buel,
J. Deming Perkins, Henry Coit and Albert Hodge.
These men
held fast to Major McNeill's canon that a through line is
a successful one, and had persuaded the General Assembly
to grant them authority to extend the Shepaug, Litchfield
and Northern northward.
Sections four and five of the
charter stated:
"Said Shepaug, Litchfield and Northern Railroad
Company is hereby authorized and empowered to
extend said railroad from its present northern
terminus in the Town of Litchfield to intersect
with the Hartford and Connecticut Western Railroad at some suitable point in either the Town
of Winchester or Norfolk, through any or all of
the Towns of Litchfield, Goshen, Torrington,
Winchester and Norfolk . ..
If said railroad company shall not complete the
construction of said extension before the first
day of July, 1891, then it shall forfeit its
right to make said extension under this charter. 29
I,
As the deadline approached, no construction had been
done, and the General Assembly was considering legislation
that would permit the more liberal consolidation of railroads.
The hopes for a through route had been dashed,
with the wistful "and Northern" being all that remained
2 9~pecial- -of Connecticut, No. 83 (substitute for
Laws
House Joint Resolution No. 166), March 10, 1887.
�of the ambitions of men like Major McNiell and Mr. Wadhams.
In fact, this date, July 1, 1891, may have been the moment
the Shepaug line was irrevocably doomed to being absorbed
by another road.
But, it would be as the S. L. and N. that the line
would see its smartest passenger service, in large part
thanks to the "easy terms" leasing of the Bethel extension
and extra cars from the New Haven to supplement its own
modest roster.
The little road did own a well-appointed
parlor car, for first class travel to and from New York.
Getting to and from the Litchfield Hills had never, no
doubt, been more comfortable or as swift, taking just over
three hours from New York City to the foot of West Street
in Litchfield.
Seasonal trains were added for summer
visitors and special stations opened, such as that for
"Holiday House", a lodge above the Shepaug River south of
Washington Depot.
New capital was infused into the road, mostly from New
Haven and New York sources, and the right-of-way was put
I
into good repair and many improvements were undertaken.
In great part due to the energy and talent of Roadmaster DeWitt C. Garrison, the line was fairly redone.
The
approaches to the 152 foot trestles that spanned the mouth
of Pond Brook were filled in with stone and earth and the
brook itself was bridged by 44 foot iron girders anchored
on sturdy stone abutments.
The 450 foot bridge across the
Housatonic was replanked and three bridges across the
�Shepaug River, one at Judd's Bridge and two in Washington,
were rebuilt with 110 foot iron girders.
By 1893, steel
rails had been laid as far north as West Morris and, by
1895, the entire line was steel.
Easements were built into
many of the sharp curves along the line making for smoother
riding but also less wear on the rails themselves.
Many
sharp curves were "flattened out" by realignment and new
excavations and fills reduced several challenging grades
along the route.
After all, the more than 800 foot vertical
drop of which Major McNeill had boasted in his 1868
prospectus made for difficult railroad operation.
Despite,
however, these gallant efforts of Mr. Garrison and his
civil engineers, heavy freights were still obliged to
"double the hills", taking half a train up a hill, leaving
it on a siding, and then returning downgrade to fetch the
other half.
Most problematic in this regard for the locomotive
engineer were:
A.
Northbound
1.
2.
3.
B.
Shepaug Station to Roxbury
Judd's Bridge to Steep Rock Tunnel
West Morris to Bantam
Southbound
1.
Housatonic River to Hanover Springs
This "doubling" of heavy loads would continue right
up to the road's demise in 1948, but the improved track
must have made for smoother travel in the passenger cars.
The S. L. and N. in 1889 rostered five locomotives
�and maintained two turntables, at Litchfield and Hawleyville,
to turn them.
While an engine house was maintained in
Litchfield for minor work, heavy repair was relegated to
the road's four stall roundhouse at Hawleyville and the
attentions of Master Mechanic Andrew J. Broughal, assisted
by S. L. and N. locomotive engineer Eugene Meramble.
Al-
though the road's offices remained in Litchfield, the
transfer of the road's maintenance and support to Hawleyville
was the harbinger of things to come.
The S. L. and N. was fast becoming an oddity in
Connecticut Railroading.
On April 1, 1887, two months
before the little road received its new charter, the
directors of the Naugatuck Railroad had leased their road
to the New Haven for ninety-nine years.
Five years later
the Danbury and Norwalk and the Housatonic followed suit.
From 1892 until 1898, therefore, the Shepaug, Litchfield
and Northern operated as a lone wolf, surrounded by the
lines of the great New Haven system.
It would appear,
however, based on the New Haven's generous relations with
the smaller road, that the S. L. and N. was continuing as
an "independent" road only so long as it might take to get
the road's "property" in good order, making it worthy of
becoming a branch of the New Haven.
Indeed, in the 1 8901s,
New Haven directors J. Pierpont Morgan and William
Rockefeller joined Colonel Hodge as directors of the S. L.
and N. and the days of independent operation waned. Despite
this, these final years of the S. L. and N. were full of
�colorful characters whose exploits bring the little road
to life for us a century later.
One Jesse A. James played a big part in the S. L. and
N.'s days, not as a train robber, as might his namesake,
but as the road's venerable agent at Hawleyville.
James
had entered railroading in 1880 at the Bridgeport freight
station but came to Hawleyville as agent in 1891.
He
was, by all accounts, a dynamo of a man, and round of
physique and moustached beneath a balding pate.
At one
time he was agent not only for the S. L. and N., but also
the Housatonic, New York and New England, and New Haven
Railroads as well as the Adams and United Express Companies,
and all at his depot in Hawleyville.
Twenty-four passenger
trains of all lines passed his station daily with 129
freights and other movements to keep separated and on time.
It was James who, in 1892, while instructing a new S. L.
and N. employee on the proper use of a new semaphore, had
ascended the signal's pole to demonstrate its operation.
His ascent was probably labored due to his great girth,
but his descent was no doubt swift and full of invective.
It seems, the record states, that while James was aloft,
the new S. L. and N. man had accidentally let go the rope
that held the semaphore arm in place and it had swung down
like a guillotine, gashing James and nearly knocking him
from the pole.
One can imagine the esteem in which James
held the new man after that event.
But these railroaders were a hearty and clever lot.
�A year later, the Newtown Bee reported that, due the
minor heroism of Conductor Lyman Bristol, and his judicious use of planks and blocks, a derailed train had been
put back on the tracks in twelve minutes time, and no
trains had been delayed at the busy Hawleyville depot. 30
These were good times for the little road, and its
passenger service offered two trains daily, in each
direction, with a third added Sundays only.
Extra summer
trains were common and the freight business was impressive
for such a small line, with the cars of 123 other railroads and express companies being seen along the road,
although most freight was, no doubt, incoming rather than
outgoing.
But the late years of the S. L. and N. did see one
dramatic wreck.
On Saturday, September 18, 1897, Engineer
Frank Munson took a freight out of Hawleyville bound for
Litchfield with Conductor Lyman Bristol, the rerailing
hero of 1893, riding in the Caboose.
As the locomotive
approached the Hanover Springs station in North Newtown,
it jumped the tracks just before a short viaduct across
Pond Brook, rode across the bridge on the planking and then
ran down into a ditch at brookside and was demolished.
Engineer Munson and his
fireman had jumped for their
lives, fearing the impact or a boiler explosion.
The
locomotive's tender and a coal hopper behind it then
toppled into the water.
3 0 ~ h e ewtown
N
Guard rails on the viaduct kept
January 27, 1893.
�the trailing cars from falling off but Bristol and his
crew must have suffered a rather rough stop in the Caboose.
The single track line was blocked, but a wrecking crew,
probably from the New Haven, was quickly dispatched to
the scene and passengers were transferred around the wreck
until it was cleared.
Despite this, the Shepaug line's
first quarter century was a generally safe one.
Roadmaster
Garrison once remarked that, to the best of his knowledge,
only two men had lost their lives as a result of a Shepaug
wreck. 31
There were, however, numerous grade crossing
incidents involving the line's trains, with the site at
Hawleyville being particularly notorious.
After great
public outcry and long official hearings, the Hawleyville
matter was resolved with neither side, the public nor the
railroad, especially happy.
The companies were obliged to
cut back hillsides to provide improved lines of sight, and
a crossing guard was posted to warn highway travellers of
oncoming trains.
These efforts towards greater safety
notwithstanding, the 150 daily trains that passed
Hawleyville still took a substantial toll of mules, horses
and carts, although the human casualties apparently decreased there. 32
One of the great treasures of the S. L. and N. to
survive to this day are the road's business records and
3 1~arrison, eWitt C., quoted in the Newtown Bee,
D
January 6 , 1893.
3 2~ewtown ee, January 27, 1893.
B
�they give stark testimony to the road's increasing
dependence on the New Haven.
Various entries in the
S. L. and N.'s Ledger and Journal reflect significant
payments to the larger road for goods and services.
Among these were:
1.
March 1896 - purchase "new" locomotive
NO. 3 - $2,124.46
2.
February 1897 - build new ice house in
Washington - $528.58
3.
November 1897 - repairs to Milk Car
NO. 26 - $113.77
4.
January 1898 - purchase "new" locomotive
No. 2 - $4,000.00
5.
February 1898 - r ent Bethel engine house
$76.95
6.
May 1898 - repairs at Shepaug
station - $74.16
7.
June 1898 - repairs to locomotive
NO. 5 - $ 2 , 0 1 9 . 9 2 ~ ~
I t would appear that the S. L. and N. was relying on
the New Haven for heavy repairs, replacement or rehabilitation of structures.
Replacement motive power was found
cheaply in the New Haven's older engines and the letting
of work to the big road's construction crews saved the
S. L. and N. the expense of retaining its own employees
for the limited work available, and conserved the small
line's limited capital.
It was now a suitable property
for inclusion into the New Haven system.
3 3~hepauq,Litchf ield and Northern Railroad, General
Ledger and Journal, 168
8-,
99n
the collection of the
Hodge Memorial Library.
�On July 1, 1898, the Shepaug, Litchfield and Northern
was leased to the New Haven for seventy-five years, with
the actual takeover occuring eight days later.
The book-
keeping of the little road, even after its lease, was, as
Chief Clerk Robert T. Bird, working
always, meticulous.
at the Litchfield depot, kept a special collections book
detailing the receipts collected by the S. L. and N.
employees for the eight day "Interregnum".3 4
With Bird's
presentation of that book to the New Haven's auditors, the
business life of the S. L. and N. came to a close.
The
road would now be known as the Shepaug or Litchfield Branch
of the New Haven with the payroll generated in New Haven.
Apparently, the new owners found it expedient to
scrap the greater part of the S. L. and N.'s locomotives
and rolling stock.
Only two of the line's five locomotives
were transferred to the New Haven and, even then, one of
those two was scrapped before it saw service for its new
owners, a fate which, quite probably, befell much old S.
L. and N. equipment.
35
The S. L. and N.'s final Annual Report, for the year
ending June 30, 1898, gives a picture of a property the
New Haven might find a source of prof it.36
The small
3 4 ~ i r d , obert T., Special Collections Book, (S. L.
R
and N. R.R.), in the collection of the Hodge Memorial Library.
3 5~wanberg, .W., - J
New Haven Power: 1838-1968, (A. F .
Staufer, Medina, Ohio), 1988, p. 51.
3 6~hepaug, itchf ield and Northern Railroad, Annual
L
Report to the State Board of Railway Commissioners (year
Z e collection of the University
ending June 30, 1898of Connecticut Archives, Storrs, Connecticut.
�line's capitalization was listed at $600,000, or $18,587.36
per mile of track.
Revenue during the final year had also
been healthy, with passenger service bringing in $26,792.40
and freight $39,874.56, for a gross income of $66,834.69.
In all, 33,742 passengers had been carried in the road's
final year of independent operation and there was, in 1898,
no apparent reason to believe that this figure would do
anything but grow.
So, the New Haven operated its newly leased property,
although the weekly ads in the Litchfield Enquirer were
still headed Shepaug, Litchfield and Northern Railroad
until 1900.
The romantic might conclude that the locals
just wouldn't give up their little railroad but the pragmatist would probably cite the New Haven's habit of
absorbing leased properties by retiring the stocks and
charters.
This may have taken until 1900 to achieve, and,
with it, the last vestiges of the S. L. and N. were gone.
The New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad was,
by 1900, firmly in the sway of J. Pierpont Morgan.
The
paradigm of the acquisitive monopoly-seeking capitalist,
Morgan had sought to control all transport in New England,
be it railroads, street cars, coastal or river boat lines.
Towards fulfillment of these ambitions, Morgan appointed
Charles S. Mellon as President of the New Haven and set
out anew to acquire any transportation properties that
had, up to then, eluded his grasp.
In their obsession with
expansion, the two men made what would turn out to be many
�unprofitable investments and would cut back on maintenance,
service and safety in the operation of the New Haven.
Even
the little Shepaug Branch, in these years prior to World
War I, would feel the effects of this mismanagement.
In 1906, the branch would suffer another derailment
at the Hanover Springs viaduct.
By this time, Conductor
Bristol must have been getting a reputation as either a
man of experience or a jinx.
Once again he was in the
Caboose as a northbound freight train lost three cars from
the middle of the consist into Pond Brook.
Inspectors
from the State Railroad Commissioner's office fixed the
cause as a broken flange on the middle car of the three that
derailed, all of which had ended up in Pond Brook.
The
Newtown - account of the incident cited the enterprise
Bee's
of three young Newtown boys who had salvaged some of the
corn and feed spilled into the water, selling it to local
farmers at bargain rates. 37
The wreck was cleared and the
track repaired in short order, with passengers, once again,
having been transferred around the wreck site.
As service went, in those early New Haven years, the
timetable dated December 3, 1899 deleted the third daily
passenger train that the S. L. and N. had been running,
although this may have been a seasonal adjustment.
The
road would now offer two daily trains in each direction
with a third offered Sundays only.
Also significant to
the overall service, is that all mention of through service
3 7~ewtowng , March 30, 1906.
�via the Bethel cut off was deleted with this schedule.
Passenger trains now ran via Danbury with patrons obliged
to change trains there.
This was, no doubt, a matter of
economy for the railroad but was a marked inconvenience
for the traveller to and from the Litchfield Hills.
The
hand of Morgan, maximizing profit at the expense of
service, was beginning to weigh on the little branch.
Connecticut rail historian Gregg Turner agrees that
Morgan and Mellen had wrecklessly overextended the company's
capital and, with the Panic of 1907, Morgan may have raided
the New Haven's treasury to help bail out insolvent friends
and acquaintances. 38
The New Haven, in any event, would
never rest upon the same financial bedrock it had prior
to the Panic and Mellen had begun to make deeper cuts in
manpower and maintenance after a severe decline in
business starting in 1911.
Among the first reductions
ordered that year was the now "redundant" Bethel extension
that had given the original Shepaug Valley Railroad direct
access to the Danbury and Norwalk Railroad and New York
City.
The line was torn up from Hawleyville south and the
Shepaug Branch's approach to Hawleyville was realigned.
Now all freight joined passenger service in being routed
off the branch and into Danbury, and the Stoney HillPlumtrees siding, listed on employee timetables as mid-way
between Hawleyville and Bethel, disappeared forever.
Most heinous, however, disregard for safety would bring
3 8~urner,Gregg, Connecticut Railroads. . A
.J
I1 lustrated
History, Connecticut Historical Society, Hartford, 1986,
p. 229.
�great tragedy to the New Haven and even the little branch
would not be a stranger to misery.
Cutting maintenance
and safety costs everywhere he could, Mellen was now
running an operation that had little regard for human
life.
During 1913, 200 employees and 37 passengers died
by the New Haven's hand.
These may seem cold remote
statistics to us now, but one particular case is so poignant
that it merits telling these 76 years later.
Edgar Fairchild Northrop farmed his property on
Hanover Road in North Newtown.
Northrop was fifty-one
and his wife, the former Florence Wetmore of Roxbury, was
thirty-six when their first child, a daughter, was born on
August 12, 1911.
The proud couple named her Aurelia
Wetmore Northrop, quite possibly expecting that, due to
their ages, she might be their only child.
Aurelia survived
her first year, a milestone in those days of rampant childhood disease, and there was no reason to believe that the
little girl should not have had an uneventful childhood.
On April 24, 1913, however, Aurelia, now a curious twentymonth old toddler, wandered through the unmaintained fencing
along the right of way and into the path of an oncoming
train.
Aurelia was buried in the Newtown Village Cemetery
on April 26th, perhaps Morgan and Mellen's youngest victim.
Five months later, elsewhere on the New Haven,
inadequate signalling in North Haven contributed to the
collision of two northbound passenger express trains,
costing 21 their lives and injuring scores more.
The
�public had had enough and the state and local papers
reflected the outrage.
C. S. Mellen was indicted for
manslaughter and J. P. Morgan died in Rome.
Shortly
afterwards, Morgan's son assumed control of the New
Haven's Baord of Directors and pressed for Mellen's quick
resignation, insulting his father's lieutenant with an
offer of $30,000 per annum for five years to go away. 3 9
With Mellen's departure, the New Haven began to get its
house in order, but it would never regain the financial
strength it had known in the late 1800's.
Now, as the
nation entered the World War I years, the New Haven began
to feel the pressure of the automobile, and its smaller
branches began to wither.
As the iron horse had eclipsed the horsedrawn stages
in the m id-18001s, the horseless carriage was now crowding
the iron horse itself.
An expensive curiosity at first,
mass production had lowered the ownership threshold to a
point where millions of Americans began to perceive the
mobile freedom of the auto as attainable for their households.
When World War I cranked up the American industrial
collossus, pumping heretofor unheard of discretionary cash
into the pockets of America's workers, the car rush was
on.
Despite a brief post-war recession, the addictive
motor car was a cornerstone of the newly envigorated
consumer culture.
Various hotels and taverns now adver-
tised special arrangements for auto parties and railroad
�passenger patronage fell off drastically.
By 1922, with
the roaring prosperity of the decade beginning to flower,
the New Haven sought to regain some of its lost financial
strength by seeking to trim marginal services in a period
of general prosperity.
The Shepaug Branch's twenty-three
year old schedule of two daily and one extra Sunday trains
was in jeopardy.
Shepaug line trains were now lightly patronized.
To
be sure, travellers to New York still went by rail, but
most found it faster and more convenient to drive to New
Milford to catch the train, rather than to endure the
winding Shepaug Branch local to the Danbury connection.
The passenger cars assigned to the Shepaug Branch
locals were usually finishing out their service life,
having been relegated there from the road's mainline
services.
They were certainly a far cry from the S. L. and
N.'s through parlor car to New York.
Finally, in April
1922, the New Haven dropped the passenger trains, and
substituted one daily round trip of a 3 5 passenger, 60
horsepower Mack railbus.
The Macks were truly road buses on railroad wheels and
were ungainly at that.
Gasoline powered, they were 27 feet
10 inches long and crammed passengers into seven rows of
three one side, two the other seating,
in vivo,
although, - -
the bus was hardly ever more than half full.
A baggage
compartment occupied the extreme rear of the vehicle and
its single rear axle made for rough riding.
There was no
�restroom a nd, in the warmer months, the windows could be
opened for ventilation.
Winter travel must have been an
adventure, for the sole source of interior heat was the
radiation from the exhaust system.
The railbus d id, in-
deed, cost less to operate than a steam passenger train,
and required a two man rather than five man crew. 40
S o,
economic advantage to the railroad had won out over service
to the dwindling public.
The New Haven was providing
service, albeit of a thoroughly minimal nature, but even
these economies would be reduced even further as the railroad used the same railbus t o cover two marginal lines,
the Shepaug and the Danbury to Waterbury "Highland Line".
The Litchfield Enquirer announced the railbus service,
reporting that it would leave Litchfield every morning at
8:40 a.m. and would arrive in Danbury at 10:20 a.m. 41
The
Mack would then make a mid-day round trip between Danbury
and Waterbury and would return to Litchfield from Danbury
at 5:50 p.m., arriving at the West Street depot at 7:46
p.m..
The bus would stay overnight in Litchfield and
repeat the circuit the next morning.
Perhaps there was some charm in that awkward looking
bus on rails, because local residents grudgingly accepted
42
the little Mack, calling it the "Toonerville" or the "dinky",
" ~itchf ield Enquirer, February 2 , 1922.
4 2~hitman,Ellen Irwin, The Shepaug Railroad, paper
presented to the Woman's Club of Washington, in the
collection of the Gunn Memorial Library, Washington, Conn.
�but its days would be short and soon it, too, was gone,
replaced by an old passenger coach carried in a freight
train.
This "mixed" train provided the Shepaug Branch's
sole passenger service until April 1927 when the New Haven
suddenly pulled the coach, leaving the Shepaug line without passenger service for the first time since it was
opened.
Local legislators and editors led the protest in
Hartford and Connecticut Public Utilities Commission
Chairman Richard T. Higgins ordered the New Haven to
resume the mixed service not later than Monday, November
21, 1927.
In a letter to Newtown - editor Allison P.
Bee
Smith, Higgins wrote:
"Unfortunately, the passenger traffic over this
line does not warrant the Commission in
ordering the company to operate a regular
passenger train, but hope the coach on the
mixed train will offer some measure of relief. ,143
The mixed banged and screeched up and down the Shepaug
Valley for nearly three more years, but, in April 1930,
the New Haven pulled the coach again, this time without a
successful protest.
Except for the occasional fortunate
passenger carried in a Caboose or in special trains of
excursionists, the Shepaug Branch would never again carry
passengers.
The mid-1920's decline in passenger traffic along the
Shepaug had been offset somewhat by continued freight
revenues but, with the onset of the Great Depression,
these too began to shrink.
Soon, the branch would no
4 3~ewtownBee, November 18, 1927.
�longer host daily freights, and motor trucks captured an
even greater part of the local freight business, operating
on W.P.A.
improved highways.
By the m i d - 1 9 3 0 ' ~the New
~
Haven was retrenching to survive the Depression and many
employees were furloughed and hundreds of locomotives and
cars had been idled and were in storage.
Lines like the
Shepaug were listed for discontinuance and, in 1936,
application was made to abandon the branch.
The proposal
was beaten back, possibly because of the implications of
the loss of thirty railroad jobs outright and the larger
range loss of the stimulus of railroad service for economic
recovery.
For whatever reason, the Shepaug Branch had
survived the Great Depression, although the right of way
was, by now, decrepit and in need of major rehabilitation.
By 1942, when America was once again at war, traffic
had increased, but track conditions limited speeds to 20
miles per hour along the entire line.
Despite this, the
World War I1 years would see the Shepaug's last passenger
revival.
Wartime rationing had forced Americans out of
their cars and onto the rails.
Numerous "fresh air" camps
were situated around the Valley's lakes and rivers and
attracted hundreds of city children who often arrived on
chartered trains arranged by the New Haven.
In addition,
Columbia University has long maintained a field site in
Morris and arranged similar trains for faculty and students.
Freight service increased as war production was maximized.
Foodstuffs and ball bearings manufactured in Bantam were
�the major outgoing commodities and thus the Shepaug did
its part for victory in 1945, but this service would be
soon forgotten after the war.
The lifting of wartime restrictions brought Americans
back to the highway an? motor trucking proliferated while
the post-war recession and coal strike of 1946 hit the
New Haven hard.
The heavy war days of fat freight tonnage
and full coaches had faded and, once again, the road
sought to pare its marginal operations.
This time the
New Haven took a different, more sophisticated approach
to trimming its system by spending considerable amounts
on public relations.
The road stressed its "solid"
commitment to providing improved regional, as opposed to
local, service, and supported its claims by placing display
ads in local newspapers, boasting of its freshly arriving
orders of modern stainless steel passenger cars and new
freight cars to replace its war weary fleet.
was headlined "Bringing in the Groceries:
One such ad
Bringing in
the Guests" and was a thinly veiled plea for the public
to cooperate in the elimination of unprofitable branch
lines in favor of improved service along selected,
profitable trunk lines.44
But, the Shepaug Valley was
not ready to give up its railroad, and skirmish lines
were drawn.
A coalition of farmers, merchants and manu-
facturers voiced its fears that the line's abandonment
would bring the Valley profound economic hardship.
4 4~itchfeld Enquirer, February 7, 1946.
i
Yet,
�the Shepaug Branch had one last dramatic act to play in
1947.
Saturday, January 4, 1947 was cold and grey as
Engineer M. J. Stone of Bethel throttled out his steam
locomotive and led a freight consist out of Danbury for
Litchfield.
It was the practice in the late days of the
Shepaug Branch for the elderly Mogul engines to top off
their water tanks at Danbury, Washington and Litchfield
so boiler steam might be maintained in the event of a
breakdown or derailment.
Fireman Edward T. Fagan had this
responsibility this Saturday morning and had climbed atop
the tender at Washington to take water, no pleasant task
on a wintry day.
The train then continued north, its
light consist making for an easy day's work for the men in
the Caboose; Conductor George Vincent, Brakeman Harry
Johnson and Flagman P. J. Ellwanger.
By the time the train
had cleared Bantam, it had only four cars and a Caboose in
tow and was making the allowable speed towards Litchfield,
where the crew would turn the locomotive on the 60 foot
man-powered "Armstrong" turntable before heading back
down line to Danbury.
The locomotive never made it.
As the train approached Route 25 (today's U.S. 202)
it crossed Butternut Brook and the engineer whistled for
the grade crossing at Bissell Road.
The locomotive's
wheels rode up on packed ice in the crossing's flangeways
and the 82 ton Mogul jumped the tracks, taking its tender
with it.
The engine continued 100 feet beyond the crossing
�and ended up fifty feet from the right of way in a meadow,
Engineer Stone had been lucky and had ridden the locomotive to its halt, but Fireman Fagan had been thrown
from the cab and was pinned beneath the engine.
Since
the freight cars and Caboose had stayed on the tracks,
the rest of the crew was unhurt and ran forward to offer
assistance.
It was indeed fortunate for Mr. Fagan that
the wreck had occured near a main highway and not along
the many miles of backwoods the Shepaug traversed, and a
passing motorist drove the half mile to the State Police
Barracks to summon help.
In short time, Fagan was cut
free of the wreckage by Bantam welders Guy Zinzer and John
Angelovich, who had rushed to the scene after being called
by police.
Fagan was taken by ambulance to Charlotte
Hungerford Hospital in Torrington where he was kept overnight for observation and discharged the next morning to
his home on Balmforth Avenue in Danbury, a very lucky man. 45
For the New Haven's part, this wreck might well have
given an earlier company administration the excuse it
needed to end service or cut it back to Bantam.
In fact,
wrecking crews worked swiftly, and the wayward engine was
back on the tracks and the line reopened before 9:00 p.m.
the next day.
The four carloads of freight, a hopper
of coal, two tank cars, one gasoline, one fuel oil and a
boxcar of undetermined lading, but probably livestock feed,
arrived in Litchfield but two days late.
4 5~bid.,January 9 , 1947.
Despite these
�heroic efforts, however, the Shepaug line had come upon
its Armageddon.
As the railroad pressed its desire in early 1947 to
abandon the branch, the directors of the Litchfield County
Farm Bureau appointed Henry R. Mosle of Goshen to lead a
committee that would study the area's options.
A meeting
was held on Wednesday, January 22, 1947 at 4:00 p.m. and
was chaired by Albert W. Clock, President of Progress
Incorporated of Litchfield.
The meeting was held in the
shadow of a recent decision by the U.S. District Court in
favor of the New Haven's approaching the Interstate Commerce
Commission for permission to abandon.
The main thrust of the local users' arguments was
that the line could be profitable if maintained properly
with more timely service.
The coal, oil, lumber, merchan-
dise, grain and other feeds that arrived at the terminal
on West Street were critical to their livelihoods and the
overall economy of the area, which had begun to increase
in population after a long period of decline. 46
The railroad, on the other hand, cited the enormous
cost of maintaining the 450-foot Housatonic bridge, now
dangerously overdue for maintenance that the railroad said
would cost nearly $60,000.
The traffic patterns, further-
more, reflected a preponderance of incoming rather than
outgoing loads along the line, an untenable situation
4 6~bid.,January 23, 1947.
�financially for the New Haven. 47
In February, Mosle and two dairying colleagues,
George DeVoe of Roxbury and Ralph Averill of Washington,
submitted their report on the impact the Shepaug's
abandonment would have on their operations.
Needing
10,000 tons of feed to produce the 15 million quarts of
milk they had in 1945, the farmers' report stated that
they could ill afford the higher rates of the truckers
and feared for their dairies claiming that, with railroad
service, feed already amounted to 35 percent of all costs
on their farms.48
In March, the I .C.C. announced that it
would hold a hearing on the proposed abandonment on July
2 in Hartford.
The hearing was convened, as scheduled, with I.C.C.
Examiner Lucian Jordan presiding.
A large delegation from
the Shepaug Valley had travelled to Hartford and it
appeared most of them intended to testify.
As one day
proved insufficient to hear all the testimony, the proceedings were adjourned to the next day at the Bryan Town
Hall in Washington, where a Shepaug line freight would
defiantly bang and screech into town just as the hearing
was reconvening less than 100 feet away.
Pausing to water
its engine and then drop a freight car or two, the
engineer gave two short toots on the whistle and eased
the train northward.
The effect on those at the hearing
47
Ibid., July 10, 1947.
481bid., February 27, 1947.
�was not lost, as the Litchfield Enquirer's reporter
noted. 49
It was, alas, the line's cause that was lost
as the hearings closed.
In the end, Examiner Jordan could not be swayed by
the locals' arguments in favor of the line's continued
operation.
The Litchfield Enquirer of October 2 3, 1947
headlined that Examiner Jordan "Recommends that Service
On Shepaug Be Discontinued" since "all points in the
territory in question can be served by motor carriers on
improved highways".
The report was then sent to the I.C.C.
itself for final action, but few expected the body to
reject its examiner's report.
The line's supporters then
attempted one last desperate move to keep their railroad.
Litchfield architect Walter Howe led a group of local
boosters who were very much the like of Messrs. Perkins,
Coit, McNeill, - - just eighty years before.
et al.
with Howe were William
0.
Working
M atthew~,Harry Seelye, Raymond
P. Atherton, Edmund Switzer and Albert W. Clock and it
was their hope that sufficient backing could be found to
purchase the line from the New Haven, in effect completing
a cycle that dated from the line's pre-1898 operation.
The men approached Frank Vanwormer Walsh, Jr., of Fairlawn,
New Jersey who, along with a group of friends, had shown
great interest in reviving marginal lines throughout the
Northeast.
Walsh intended to purchase the line from the
New Haven with the proceeds from a mortgage loan not to
4 9~bid.,July 10, 1947.
�exceed the value of the line's rails.
Walsh proposed the
purchase of a General Electric 44 ton switching locomotive to provide the motive power on the line but,
regrettably, no lending institution was willing to assume
the risk at terms that would have allowed the line a fair
chance to show an income. 50
The plan fell through and,
with the announcement by the I.C.C. on May 3 , 1948, that
the New Haven would be permitted to close the line promptly.
The Enquirer reacted:
"(It is) a source of deep regret as well as
economic concern for people in this area.
While the I.C.C. in its wisdom has decided
that the ability of the New Haven to serve
New England outweighs the local loss, there
is no dodging the fact that these (local)
merchants face a real roblem in readjusting
1
to the new situation.1l!
Given authority to discontinue, the New Haven embargoed
the line, but allowed shipments from distant points to be
delivered into June.
Finally, on June 24, 1948, a diesel-
electric bi-directional switch engine, with a Caboose
attached, would start up the line to Litchfield, ignore
the turntable and then return to Danbury collecting the
empty cars spotted out along the line.
It is curious that
the New Haven sent a public relations man along with the
Caboose crew on most of the line's last runs.
A photo-
graph in the June 17, 1948 New Milford Times shows the
management man running back to the Caboose, obviously
having delivered the company line to the paper's reporter
5 0 ~ h e ew Milford Times, June 17, 1948.
N
5 1~itchfieldEnquirer, May 13, 1948.
�and photographer.
The train is northbound, and sits just
up the line from the Roxbury depot, which still stands
today.
Accompanying photos picture the train's crew,
Conductor F. J. Herbst, Engineer Robert Baird, Fireman
Edward A. Hynes and Road Foreman Denis T. Spaulding in
diesel switcher No. 945 and the Caboose - - such modernity
and attention from the New Haven for the little line's
swansong.
By July 1, only wrecking and inspection move-
ments travelled its rails and, by Christmas, the rails were
gone, sold for scrap.
operating railroad.
The Shepaug was finished as an
�Epilogue
The Shepaug Railroad was an outstanding expression of
the civic booster culture in the small New England communities it served.
Despite the failure of the Shepaug
River Valley to develop industrially as had the neighboring Naugatuck, the Shepaug line's continued operation was
held by local elites, even up to 1948, as critical to the
overall well-being of the towns' commerce and agriculture.
The line's eventual demise was brought about by the proliferation of motor vehicles and the extension of the
state's network of paved and/or improved highways maintained at public expense.
On the other hand, the nearly
$60,000 expense towards rehabilitating the Housatonic
railroad bridge on the Shepaug line would have been borne
entirely by the New Haven Railroad which was, in 1948,
struggling to recapitalize itself with new equipment and
right-of-way work.
The road's promise of improved service
on the neighboring Housatonic line sealed the Shepaug's
fate but, to be fair, the pledge held up, with that service
lasting into the 1970's.
But what is left of the old Shepaug?
Remarkably
enough, rail is still in use on a short segment of the
line's approach to Hawleyville.
Used as an industrial
siding by a lumber firm, the turnout and a short length of
track are still laid upon the old line's right-of-way.
All other track along the Shepaug is gone, however, and,
with the passing of years, relics like tieplates or spikes
�are becoming harder to find along the road's erstwhile
route.
The line's embankments and sturdy masonry work
survive for the most part, although much of its length
is now posted as private property and is not accessible
for the casual stroller.
Few of the Shepaug's structures
survive to this day, but the road's last freight office
does business in Litchfield as a cafe.
Just to its south,
on Russell Street, the coal bins filled by Shepaug carried
hopper cars stand, boarded up and derelict.
Heading down
the line, highway construction in 1988 claimed the midstream pier of the Butternut Brook viaduct adjacent to
U.S. Route 202, but, just down the road, the impressive
stone abutments that carried the line across the Bantam
River still stand behind the plant of PTC Aerospace.
Further along, the clearing where the Bantam station
once stood is still open ground just east of Connecticut
Route 209 where it crosses the Bantam River and the line's
right-of-way, just south of the bridge, recently served
the residents of Trumbull Street in Bantam as their only
vehicular egress during the 1986 rebuilding of their
bridge to Route 202.
Further down the line, the Morris Historical Society
has placed a bronze plaque at the site of the town's old
station at Smokey Hollow, and, beyond that, the platform
and foundations at New Preston Station grace the front
yard of a private home on Route 47 in Washington.
In
Washington Depot, the old station was lifted from its
�foundations and relocated some yards away, serving today
as an American Legion Hall.
Shortly after leaving
Washington Depot, the old line enters what is today the
Steep Rock Reservation, in which the right-of-way has been
preserved as a hiking and bridle path.
The abandoned piers
of the old suspension bridge to Holiday House had supported
a foot bridge until the early 1970's but now stand unused,
and just to the south, the curved Steep Rock Tunnel still
beckons the brave, but beware of falling rock, dripping
water and bats.
South of here, the embankment can be easily found
and followed through Judd's Bridge to Roxbury Station
where the depot building still stands, serving as a
storage house for lumber.
South of here, at the grade
crossing on Route 67, the line wanders downgrade to Roxbury
Falls, where the remnants of the silica and garnet industries that fed the line can be found.
Beyond this, the
right-of-way descends into the deep waters of Lake
Lillinonah, created in 1955 when the Shepaug Hydroelectric
Dam on the Housatonic River flooded the valleys behind it,
inundating the site of the road's old Shepaug station and
the piers of the dismantled bridge that crossed the
Housatonic.
The route does not re-emerge from the Lake's
waters until Hanover Springs, near the public boat launch
on Hanover Road in Newtown, but the starcrossed viaduct
across Pond Brook, so well known to the late Conductor
Bristol, still stands off Pond Brook Road, near Hanover.
�The line can then be followed to Hawleyville, but much
is, again, private property, including the driveway of a
fortunate Currituck Road homeowner who has used an old
Shepaug culvert and length of embankment to get to a
modern, post-railroad house, the living room of which
lies astride the old right-of-way.
Beyond this, the
roadbed continues until the stub-ended siding at the
lumber company, and disappears into today's Conrail
single track at Hawleyville.
So, today, the Shepaug remains as marks on the landscape or in masonry cairns along its route.
Yet, there
is a local legend that in the late 1800's a wrecked freight
car was buried somewhere between Bantam and Morris stations.
If this is true, perhaps a great relic of a past age will
be found to excite the imaginations of future generations.
If it is only legend, or is never found, then it will
always belong to us all in the Shepaug Valley, as if it
were yet shuttling milk between our towns and the cities,
with Conductor Bristol waving to our children at trackside.
�APPENDIX 1
PRO-RAILROAD PROPERTY OWNING PETITIONERS
LITCHFIELD, CONNECTICUT, OCTOBER 3 , 1870
SPECIAL TOWN MEETING ON MUNICIPAL SUBSCRIPTION
TO ADDITIONAL SHEPAUG VALLEY RAILROAD STOCK
IN AMOUNT OF ONE PERCENT OF TOWN GRAND LIST
McNeill, Edwin
A.S. Wright and Company
Adams, Charles
Adams, Henry W.
Beach, S.G.
Braman, F.J.
Braman, William H.
Bray, Michael B.
Bronson, S.N.
Brown, F.W.
Buell, William R.
Bulkley, David C.
Coit, H.R.
Crossman, William H.
Curtiss, D.
Deming, Lucretia
Dunn, H.C.
F.D. McNeil and Company
G. Sanford and Son
Gates, H.E.
Hale, F.M.
Judd, Jesse L.
Kirchberger, Charles G.
Lewis, M.A.
Lord, George F.
McNeil, F.D.
Meafoy, L.O.
Merriman, Hiram
Phelps, L.C.
Richards, Thomas H.
Sanford, Garwood
Sanford, S.M.
Sedgwick, Theodore S.
Seymour, O.S.
Treadway, J.J.
Welch, J.H.
Wessills and Gates
Wheeler, George
Wheeler, J.W.
Williams, Robert
Woodruff, George C.
Wright, A.S.
Thumway, A.B.
Trowbridge, Stephen
White, James L.
Woodruff, H.L.
(Brake)?, John P.
(Grbbrd)?, H.B.
(Mouthrop)?, Erastus P.
Amts, B.
Baldwin, George H.
Baldwin, Mrs. H.M.
Barker, Catherine E.
Barnes, Nelson H.
Beckwith, J.G.
Belden, Charles 0.
Benton, Amos C.
Bishop, C.B.
Bishop and Sedgwick
Bissell, William
Bostwick, D.E.
Bronson, E.P.
Buell, Charles T.
Crane, Esther M.
Deming, C.T.
Dwyer , Edward
Fuller, Almon E.
Fuller, J.E.
Ganung, James
Gould, Julia
Harney, Thomas
Hickox, G.A.
Hubbard, John H.
Johnson, L.M.
Johnson, S.B.
Kenney, George
Lord, A.A.
Marsh, Frederick A.
Merriman, Charles
Merriman, H. and C.
Merriman, Joseph
Morse, Jacob
Munger, Sheldon
Parmalee, Caroline
Parmalee, Sally
Peck, William L.
Ray, C.F.
Staples, Edson
Stevens, Robert
Stone, Alva
Stone, Leonard
Tharp, Joel A.
�(Hadsell?), Lewis
Andrews, Charles B.
Andrews, Hubbard L.
Baldwin, Sr., Horace
Baldwin, William F.
Barber, E.O.
Beach, Milo
Beach, Samuel
Biglow, J.W.
Bissell, Amos
Braman, Samuel G.
Brennan, John
Cable, Henry T.
Catlin, (Cyrus?)
Catlin, Arthur D.
Coe, Henry L.
Coe, Levi
Colvocoresses, George M.
DeForest, David
Granger, Warden A.
Mason, George W.
McCall, Benjamin A.
Miller, Timothy E.
Miller, William G.
Morse, Arabel H.
Morse, George E.
Morse, Harley
Norton, William
Osborn, John
Osborn, Myron
Osborn, W.S.
Peck, J.B.
Prescott, George
Prescott, H.H.
Saltonstall, Thomas L.
Seymour, E.W.
Sharp, Homer
Smith, Rufus
Stoddard, F.S.
Taylor, Isaac
Wadhams, F. and F.
Webster, Benjamin
Webster, C.B.
Webster, William M.
Welch, Mark
Wessells, L.W.
Wheeler, David M.
Williamson, John
Wood, David M.
Woodruff, George M.
Wright, S. and E.H.
Baldwin, Theodore E.
Beach, Lucy
Benton, Horatio
Bishop, H.L.
Bissell, Charles
Bissell, Henry B.
Bissell, Lawrence
Bissell, Nathaniel
Bissell, Sally
Buell, Mary T.
Candee, John B.
Child, Elizabeth P.
Clemons, H.
Clock, Samuel
Dickinson, E.P.
Dudley, S.H.
Frisbie, L.M.
Graham, G.W.
Grant, David M.
Grant, Harriet L.
Hand, F.B.
Hutchinson, Isaac H.
Keeler, William R.
Kilbourn, Eliada
Kilbourn, Ethan
Litchfield Land and ( ? ) Company, by
E. McNeill, President
Marsh, Clarissa A.
Marsh, Harriel L.
Marsh, Mary
Marsh, Rhoda
Marsh, William L.
Merriman, George
Neville, D.
Perkins, J. Deming
Peters, John T.
Potter, G.G.
Powers, Michael
Richards, A.M.
Richards, Rev. Goerge
Ruwet, Nicholas
Sanford, Derick V.
Stevens, Seymour
Thrall, Charles L.
Van Winkle, Edgar L.
Wheeler, Charles D.
Wheeler, T.L.
White, John Jay
Woodruff, John A.
Woodruff, L.B.
Wright, E.H.
�(Moltrop?), S.
Baldwin, Henry
Beach, A.B.
Beach, A.G.
Beach, H.
Bishop, Charles
Bissell, E.B.
Bissell, W.W.
Bradley, Fred
Bradley, H.
Buel, Henry W.
Buel, Henry W. (Exec.
extate of Dr. Samuel Buel)
Buel, Minerva
Cheney, Mary
Cheney, Silas E.
Conklin, S.R.
Conklin, Sarah E.
Crandall, R.C.
Crossman, Edward
Grannis, A.L.
Griswold, H.P.
Hotchkiss, Hurlbert H.
Hotchkiss, Lewis C.
Hutchinson, Lewis
Hutchinson, Lewis E.
Keeler, S.C.
Landon, F.C.
Marsh, (Rivesius?)
Morris, John N.
Morse, Aaron
Morse, H.O.
Nichols, Horace
O'Brion, William
Osborn, N.L.
Palmer, William H.
Peck, Charles J.
Peck, E.M.
Quigley, Felix
Roraback, John
Smith, H.D.
Smith, F.L.
Tompkins, Jackson
Tompkins, Mrs. Phebe L.
Tracy, Malachi
Wadhams, John M.
Wadhams, Maria L.
Warner, Elizabeth
Weeks, Eli D.
Welch, Clarissa per J.H.W.
Beach, David H.
Bell, Thomas
Botsford, H.A.
Buell, Lucretia
Camp, D.B.W.
Cullen, R.D.
Frisbie, Henry
Lane, Mrs. Susan B.
Litchfield Carriage Company,
by F.W. Hand, President
Tharp, George
Tyrell, George
Wentworth, Henry T.
Whitney, Almira
SOURCE: LITCHFIELD, CONNECTICUT TOWN RECORDS, Volume 49
(Minutes of Town Meetings and Posting of Legal Notices and
Petitions)
Compiled and databased by Mark E. Anderson, Bantam,
Connecticut; November and December, 1988.
�APPENDIX 2
PRO-RAILROAD LANDOWNING PETITIONERS
ROXBURY, CONNECTICUT: DECEMBER 11, 1869
SPECIAL TOWN MEETING ON MUNICIPAL SUBSCRIPTION TO STOCK
IN THE SHEPAUG VALLEY RAILROAD
, Frederick
Beardsley, Charles
Berr
, William P.
Bradley, Edson
Brailley, Henry E.
Bronson, Daniel G.
Bronson, Daniel G.
Bronson, William
Brothers, Judson
Brothers, Judson
Camp, Ophelia R.
Camp, Ophelia R.
Davidson, Treat
Fenn, Aaron W.
Fisbee, Harman
Frisbee, Harman
Gillette, Daniel M.
Graham, George W.
Hoag, Edwin
Hoag, Edwin
Hodge, Albert L.
Isham, Austin
Judd, Daniel
Judd, Lewis
Leavenworth, Edwin
Lineham, William
Meeker, Henry
Noble, George H.
Noble, George H.
Peck, John
Prindle, Cyrus
Prindle, Edwin
Randall, Celia A.
Randall, Celia A.
Randall, Charles
Randall, Charles
Randall, Delia B.
Randall, M. Helen
Randall, M. Helen
Sawyer, Allen
Smith, George
Smith, Levi
Vees, Frederick
Warner, Silas
Wetmore, Cyrus E.
Wetmore, Frank E.
American Silver Steel Co.
Beardsley, Julius C.
Beers, Chauncy A.
Beers, Philo
Bennitt, William P.
Bissell, John E.
Boland, Eugene R.
Botsford, Charles
Botsford, George
Botsford, Mary Ann
Bronson, William
Buckingham, Botsford W.
Call, George W.
Camp, Sheldon
Davis, Charles 0.
Dickinson, Henry H.
Goram, Aaron
Goram, William H.
Hawley, John C.
Hodge, Albert L.
Judd, Joel W.
Keeler, Hiram and Daniel
Keeler, James H.
Langdon, Patrick
Leavenworth, Edwin
Leavenworth, J.B.
Mallett, Henry W.
Minor, Sherman
Mitchell, Simeon
Moore, James
Nicholson, Cyrus T.
Northrup, George A.
Northrup, H.C.
Phipping, J.M.
Randall, Henry
Roswell, Samuel
Rowe, E.P.
Seward, Orin B.
Shephard, Truman
Swank, W.B.
Tyrell, Amos
Tyrell, Charles T.
Tyrell, Hiram
Tyrell, Oliver S.
Tyrell, Stephen
Tyrell, Thomas
�APPENDIX 3
PRO-RAILROAD LANDOWNING PETITIONERS
MORRIS, CONNECTICUT: OCTOBER 21, 1869
SPECIAL TOWN MEETING ON MUNICIPAL SUBSCRIPTION TO STOCK
IN THE SHEPAUG VALLEY RAILROAD
Adams, S.M.
Alvord, C.H.
Alvord, Edgar
Bostwick, Ammon
Brown, Shelton J.
Buell, Charles
Buell, Orson
Bull, Jay J.
Bunnell, H.D.
Chase, Willis
Curtis, Orson
Curtis, Russell
Derby, Dexter E.
Edmonds, Nelson
Edmonds, Walter M.
Flynn, John
Forster, Charles
Glover, (PI?. H.
Grannis, Lucinda
Green, William
Hall, William L.
Hand, F.B.
Hand, F.B. (admin. estate
of Leman Stone)
Hard, George W.
Judd, L.P. (admin. estate
of Arthur J udd)
Keeler, William R.
Ludington, Margaret
Martin, Henry J. and Mary E.
Smith (exec. estate of
Bateman Smith)
Munroe, Aaron
Peck, Sidney
Stoddard, George
Stoughton, Cicero
Thompson, A.
Thompson, John
Todd, M.S.
Waugh, Grace (admin. estate
of S.W. Waugh)
Waugh, H.H.
Waugh, T.L.
Weed, Averis M.
Weed, Orson
Westover, John
Westover, Linus
Wickwire, Charles
Wickwire, Cynthia
Ames, William B.
Babbitt, John
Baldwin, Henry
Baldwin, Judson
Bates, Frederick
Benton, Horatio
Benton, Sarah
Brown, William E.
Cables, James T.
Carpenter, Lucy A.
Cheney, Silas E.
Clock, Samuel
Deming, William
Dewez, V.
Emmons, Ehiel
Emmons, Ira A.
Griswold, Dwight
Griswold, L.L.
Hall, Beebe S.
Hall, Emeline
Hays, Ephraim
Hinnman(?), Nathan
Holohan, Thomas
Hotchkiss, Elihu
Hubbard, Joseph S.
Jordan, Timothy C.
Marsh, Frederick A
Marsh, John
Munson, Abijah
Munson, S.L.
Nobles, Charles
Palmer, Abner B.
Peck, Charles J.
Pratt, F.H.
Randall, P.B.
Ray, John
Ray, Sheldon B.
Roots, Stanley
Russell, Edward B.
Smith, H.N.
Smith, Simeon
Sullivan, James
Thompson, D.W.
Throop, Dan
Throop, George
Throop, Monroe
Turkington, David
Wagoner, D.W.
Watts, Adam
�Barnes, George
Barnes, George I.
Barnes, Nelson
Bates, James
Blackman, Leander
Bradley, Eli N.
Bristol, Isaac B.
Bronson, John T.
Burritt, Lewis B.
Camp, D.C.
Camp, Oliver G.
Camp, William
Coad, Samuel
Cole, C.D.
Downs, Myron
Evans, John
Fairchild, H.L.
Garlick, Earl H.
Garlick, Edmond E.
Garlick, George E.
Garlick, H.C.
Gillette, Horace D.
Gorman, Joseph
Harris, George E.
Hawley, Isaac A.
Hodge and Edwards
Hurlburt, George W.
Hurlburt, Henry S.
Morris, Winthrop
Patterson, Roswell B.
Picket, William
Pickett, David
Pickett, Michael
Pierce, David
Preston, B.S.
Preston, B.S. (adm. estate
of Mary B. Whittlesey)
Prindle, Cyrus E.
Prindle, Edwin C.
Prindle, Horace F.
Sanford, Charles
Sanford, Stephen
Seeley, Edwin G.
Smith, G.W.
Smith, John S.
Smith, Nathan R.
Smith, Sheldon B.
Stiles, David G.
Thomas, Charles
Thomas, George W.
Trowbridge, Henry W.
Ward, Albin
Wright, David V.
Addis, Seth
Albin, George M.
Baker Weirs(?), Daniel
Beardsley, Charles
Bradley, Maria P.
Brismade(?), F.A.
Bryan, Ursula H.
Camp, Albert
Castle, Erastus
Clark, James
Davenport, Benjamin
Eastman, Herman B.
Elwell, Hiram
Fenn, Henry W.
Frisbie, Lucy
Garlick, Earl H. and Henry E.
Hatch, Mark T.
Hickox, Orestus
Hollister, Seth
Hurlburt, George
Isham, Chester A.
Keefe, Patrick
Leavenworth, George F.
Leavenworth, Sarah J.
Leavenworth, Theodore
Masters, Almarine
Meramble, Bronson
Minor, Nathaniel
Odell, Myron
Potter, Collis I.
Prindle, Isaac B.
Sanford, Watson G.
Sherman, Ann
Smith, W.B.
Squire, Eunice
Squire, Levi T.
Stoddard, Betsey
Teeple, Levi R.
Thomas, Mary
Twitchell, Mary
Warner, Betsey Ann
Warner, C.H. and H.N.(?)
Warner, Henry
Woodruff, Enoch
Wray, George B.
Whitehead, Alonzo
Whitehead, Hubbell
Warner, George
Warner, Leroy S.
Watson, John
Whelan, James
Whelan, Patrick
Wilmot, Daniel
SOURCE: ROXBURY, CONNECTICUT TOWN RECORDS, Volume One (Minutes
of Town Meetings and Posting of Legal Notices and Petitions)
Compiled and databased by Mark E. Anderson, Bantam, Connecticut;
November and December, 1988.
�Baldwin, Isaac
Benton, Amos C.
Bissell, Melissa P.
Bissell, Nathaniel
Brayman, William A.
Burgess, Asa
Burgess, Asa and Truman 0.
Sanford, - in lo
Burgess, Junius ( ? )
Burgess, William L.
Burns, Martin
Canfield, T.S.
Catlin, Mary A.
Catlin, Truman
Clemons, Harry
Crandall, R.C.
Cook, C.N. (exec. estate of
H.J. Hand, deceased)
Emmons, A.M.
Emmons, Orson
Ensign, Samuel M.
Fogg, Nicholas H.
Goslee, C.C. and T.C.
Griswold, Chalres
Griswold, Silas M.
Hall, Beebe S. (admin. estate
of H.J. Peck)
Hall, L.B.
Hallock, A.B.
Hard, George M.
Harrison, Rollin H.
Hubbard, Benjamin
Kilbourn, David P.
Kilbourn, R.F.
Laurens, William H.
Laurens and Smedley
Ludington, Frederick L.
Miner, Garry H.
Morse, Arabel H.
Moss, Eliza
Ray, Henry R.
Ray, William by H.R. Ray, executor
Sanford, Joseph
Sanford, Truman 0.
Sedgwick, Theodore R.
Smedley, William L.
Stoddard, Homer
Stoddard, Jesse R.
Stone, Cornelia
Throop Brothers
Tracy, A.C.
Tracy, Malachi
Waugh, Anah
Waugh, H.
Waugh, L.J.
Weeks, Ezra E.
Westover, Lavina
Wetmore, Edward
Wheeler, S.M. by J.W. Wheeler,
guardian
Wheeler, William S.
Wilmot, Lucius
Wilson, Charles
SOURCE: MORRIS, CONNECTICUT TOWN RECORDS, Volume One (Minutes
of Town Meetings and Posting of Legal Notices and Petitions)
Compiled and databased by Mark E. Anderson, Bantam, Connecticut;
November and December, 1988.
�APPENDIX 4
WASHINGTON, CONNECTICUT PROPERTY OWNERS
GRANTING RIGHT OF WAY FOR CONSTRUCTION
AND OPERATION OF THE SHEPAUG VALLEY RAILROAD:
1870 TO 1872
Titus, J. Sherman
Platt, Simeon D.
Bishop, Joel
Ford, Romulus W.
Brinsmade, T.F. and S.L.
Kinney, Elias C.
Richmond, Amos T.
The "Babcock Heirs:
Phebe Babcock
Homer W. Babcock
John K. Cady
Mary J. Cady
Guy C. Ford, guardian
to Laura, William R.
and Robert Babcock,
minors
Seeley, Edson S.
Mealia, Richard
Ford, Polly L. and
Candace G. Seeley
Ford, Simeon D.
Hurlburt, Erastus J.
Bronson, Daniel G. and
John H
Burgess, Alanson A.
Bryan, Richard A.
Hickox, George A.
Mitchell, Simeon H.
Hickox, Charles L.
Bronson, Garradus N.
Kinney, Mary E.,
guardian to Sarah E.
Kinney
Seymour, Origen
Burgess, Asa
Wedge, George
Ford, Simeon and Guy C.
Woodruff, Merritt S.
Hodge, Albert L.,
conservator to Elliot
Lucas
Hickox, Orestes
The New Milford Savings
Bank, mortgage holder
on property of Armond
his
Olmsted, at - request
/s/ John S. Turrill,
treasurer
.
January 4, 1870
December 28, 1870
December 28, 1870
December 30, 1870
January 23, 1871
January 9, 1871
December 26, 1870
December 23, 1870
January 18, 1871
January 23, 1871
January 28, 1871
January 14, 1871
December 28, 1870
February 3, 1871
January 30, 1871
January 13, 1871
January 7, 1871
March 2, 1871
December 28, 1870
February 8, 1871
January 25, 1871
February 11, 1871
January 19, 1871
February 10, 1871
January 27, 1871
January 7, 1871
December 26, 1870
July 3 , 1871
June 24, 1871
�ii
Olmsted, Armond
Titus, Sarah W., John
W. and Joseph (right
to lay pipes across
their property to
watering station)
Hurlburt, George
Titus, J. Sherman
Bryan, Richard A.
SOURCE:
April 11, 1871
September 9 , 1871
February 7, 1871
February 1, 1872
August 25, 1871
WASHINGTON, CONNECTICUT LAND RECORDS: Volume 22.
�APPENDIX 5
FOREIGN CAR MOVEMENTS
SHEPAUG, LITCHFIELD AND NORTHERN RAILROAD
JULY 1895 THROUGH JUNE 1898
Allegheny Valley Railroad
Alton Terminal Railroad
Ann Arbor Railroad
Armour Car Lines
Arms Palace Horse Car Company
Atlantic Coast Line Railroad
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern Railway
Bangor and Aroostook Railroad
Beech Creek Railroad
Blue Line
Boston and Albany Railroad
Boston and Maine
Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh Railroad
Buffalo and Susquehanna Railroad
Burlington and Missouri River Railroad in Nebraska
Burton Stock Car Company
Canada Atlantic
Canada Southern Line
Canadian Pacific Despatch
Canadian Pacific Railroad
Cape Fear and Yadkin Valley Railway
Central Railroad of New Jersey
Central Vermont Railway
Chesapeake, Ohio and Southwestern
Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad
Chicago, Cleveland, Cincinnati and St. Louis Railroad
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad
Chicago, Peoria and St. Louis Railroad
Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad
Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway
Chicago and Alton
Chicago and Erie Railroad
Chicago and Grand Trunk
Chicago and Northwestern Railroad
Chicago and Western Michigan Railway
Chicago Great Western Railway
Chicago Refrigerator Car Line
Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Railway
Cleveland, Akron and Columbus Railroad
Commerce Despatch Line
Concord and Montreal Railroad
Cumberland Valley Railroad
Delaware and Hudson Canal Company
Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railway
Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic Railway
�Empire Line
Erie and Wyoming Valley
Erie Despatch Company
Erie Railroad
Evansville and Terre Haute
Excelsior Horse Car Line
Fall Brook Railway Company
Fitchburg Railroad
Flint and Pere Marquette
Florence Railroad of the Atlantic Coast Line
Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad
Grand Trunk
Great Central Route Blue Line
Great Northern Railway
Illinois Central Railroad
Indiana, Decatur and Western
Iowa Central
Kansas City, Pittsburgh and Gulf Railroad
Lake Shore and Michigan Southern
Lehigh and Hudson River
Lehigh Valley
Louisville, New Albany and Chicago Railway
Louisville and Nashville
Madison, Alton and Chicago Railroad
Maine Central
Mather Horse and Stock Car Company
Memphis and Charleston Railroad
Merchants Despatch Transfer Company
Michigan Central Railroad
Midland Line
Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie Railroad
Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad
Narragansett Pier Railroad
National Despatch Line
New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad
New York, Lake Erie and Western
New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad
New York, Ontario and Western
New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio
New York, PHiladelphia and Norfolk Railroad
New York and New England
New York Central and Hudson River
Norfolk and Western
Northern Pacific Railroad
Ohio River Railroad
Ohio Southern Railroad
Pennsylvania Company
The New England Railroad
Pennsylvania Railroad
Peoria, Decatur and Evansville Railroad
Philadelphia, Reading and New England
Philadelphia and Reading Railroad
Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis
�Pittsburgh, Shenaugo and Lake Er'ie Railroad
Red Line
Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg Railroad
Rutland Railway
South Manchester Railroad
Southern Pacific Railroad
Southern Railway
St. Louis, Chicago and St. Paul Railway of ILlinois
Streets Western Stable Car Line
Toledo, Peoria and Western Railroad
Toledo, St. Louis and Kansas City Railroad
Vandalia Line
Venice Transportation Line
Vinton Colliery Company
Wabash Railroad
West Shore Railroad
Western Equipment and Car Company
Western New York and Pennsylvania
Westmoreland Coal Company
Wheeling and Lake Erie Railway
White Line Central Transit Company
Wisconsin Central Lines
Yazoo and Mississippi Valley Railroad Company
SOURCE: SHEPAUG, LITCHFIELD AND NORTHERN RAILROAD CAR SERVICE
9~
1898:~~
MEMORIAL L I B R A R Y ~ O X B U R Y ,
VOUCHER--
CONNECTICUT
Compiled and databased by Mark E. Anderson, Bantam, Connecticut;
Fall 1988.
�APPENDIX 6
EXCERPTS FROM SHEPAUG, LITCHFIELD AND
NORTHERN RAILROAD ANNUAL REPORT, 1898,
PREPARED BY CHIEF CLERK ROBERT T. BIRD
A.
PASSENGERS CARRIED BY MONTH, FISCAL YEAR:
3,949
5,652
4,280
3,570
2,116
1,544
July 1897
August 1897
September 1897
October 1897
November 1897
December 1897
NB
-
B.
BOARD OF DIRECTORS, S.L. AND N. RR; JUNE 30, 1898:
New
New
New
New
New
New
New
Haven, Connecticut
Haven, Connecticut
Haven, Connecticut
Haven, Connecticut
York, New York
York, New York
York, New York
New York, New York
Litchfield, Connecticut
OFFICERS, S.L. AND N. RR, JUNE 30, 1898:
President
Vice-president
Secretary
Treasurer
Chief Clerk
General Mgr.
Superintendent
D.
1,519
1,272
1,707
1,779
2,388
3,968
The justification for the extra summer season
passenger train is quite apparent.
Charles P. Clark
John M. Hall
William E. Barnett
S. E. Merwin
Alexander McNeill
J. Pierpont Morgan
William Rockefeller
George MacCulloch
Miller
J. Deming Perkins
C.
January 1898
February
March 1898
April 1898
May 1898
June 1898
John M. Hall
Charles P. Clark
William E. Barnett
Phillip P. Hubbard
Robert T. Bird
Charles H. Platt
J. E. Martin
New Haven
New Haven
New Haven
Litchfield
Litchfield
New Haven
Danbury
CAPITALIZATION, JUNE 30, 1898:
12 thousand shares at $50.00 per share
TOTAL: $600,000.
�E.
FREIGHT COMMODITIES AS PERCENT OF TOTAL HAULAGE 7/97 - 6/98:
Grain
Flour
Fruit & Veg.
Livestock
Dressed Meats
Milk
Anthracite
Stone
Lumber
Petroleum
F.
13.45%
1.18%
.87%
- 78%
2.29%
20.38%
16.08%
23.52%
8.26%
- 70%
General Manufactures
Cement,Brick,Lime & Sand
Wines,Liqubrs,Beer
Merchandise
Miscellaneous
TOTAL TONNAGE:
Outbound
Inbound
Total Hauled
3.26%
4.25%
.65%
2.42%
1.91%
21,017 tons
17,547 tons
38,564 tons
S.L. AND N. R.R. ROLLING STOCK, JUNE 30, 1868:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Five Locomotives - 1 , 2 , 3 , 4, 5
Four Milk Cars - 24, 26, 28, 30
Seven Passenger-Baggage Cars a. Combine #1
b. Combine # 2
c. Coach #3
d. Caboose #5
e. "Old" Baggage #4 (remodeled from old milk car)
f. Coach #6
g. Combine #7
Thirty-two flat cars (one "old style" # 63, wrecked
and deleted) a. "Old" style, poor condition ( 13) 25, 27, 29, 33, 35, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 55,
59, 61
b. "New" style, top condition ( 19) 6 5, 67, 69, 71, 73, 75, 77, 79, 81, 83, 85,
87, 89, 91, 93, 95, 97, 99, 101
�SOURCES CONSULTED
Primary
Connecticut General Assembly. Special (Private) - - of
Laws
Connecticut, Volumes VI and XII.
Gunn Memorial Library:
Whitman, Ellen Irwin.
copy)
.
Washington:
The Shepaug Railroad, 1954 (photo-
Hodge Memorial Library:
Roxbury:
Bird, Robert T. Special Collections Book, Shepaug,
Litchfield and Northern Railroad, July 1-9, 1898.
Hodge, Albert L.
Day Books.
Shepaug, Litchfield and Northern Railroad, Car Service
Voucher Book, 1895-1898.
.
.
General Ledger, 1888-1898.
Journal, 1895-1898.
Litchfield Historical Society:
Litchfield:
Champlin, John. The Chronicles of Sirrom, pamphlet.
Litchfield, Connecticut: ~ F u i r e r ress, 1869.
P
McNeill, Edwin.
Personal documents and engineering drawings.
Wadhams, Albert. An Exhibit of Estimates -or A Proposed
FExtension - - ~ auaatuckRailroad. QamQhlet.
of t he
Litchfield, Connecticut: By the author, 1882.
J
Morris Library:
.
L
L
Morris:
Waugh, Phillip. "Old Railroads". Morris, Connecticut Oral
History Project, delivered August 18, 1979. (transcript,
No. 205 in the lecture series).
University of Connecticut Archives at Storrs.
Shepaug, Litchfield and Northern Railroad. Annual Report
to the Connecticut - - of Railroad Commissioners,
Board
-(Year Ending June 30, 1898). Litchfield, Connecticut:
1898.
�Secondary
BOOKS :
Carlson, Einar W. and Kenneth T. Howell. Empire - Over the
Dam. Old Chester, Connecticut: Pequot Press, 1974.
Clarke, Thomas Curtis. "The Buildinq of a Railway" in
~larke, t - al., The American ~ a i l w a ~ . ecaucus, ew
e
~
N
Jersey: Castle Books, 1988 (Facsimile reproduction
of original 1890 edition.).
Swanberg, J. W. New Haven Power:
A. F. Staufer, 1988.
1838-1968.
Medina, Ohio:
. .. Turner, Gregg. Connecticut Railroads - An Illustrated
History. Hartford: Connecticut Historical Society,
1986.
Weik, Laura Stoddard. One Hundred Years - History of
Morris, Connecticut, 1859-1959.
orris:
Centennial Committee, 1959.
own-
ARTICLES:
Barnes, Fred. "The Old Shepauq Railroad - Slow, Late and
~ d i s ~ " he - - - itchf field Hills. Vol. XI,
- Lure of the
T,
No. 3, June 1951.
Dillistin, Alfred S. "Shepaug Epic". - - - - the
The Lure of
Litchfield Hills. Vol. X I No. 3, June 1949.
Flynn, George J. "Puritan Valley Line". Railroad
Magazine. Vol. 4 5, No. 3., April 1948.
NEWSPAPERS:
Litchfield (Connecticut) Enquirer. 25 February, 27 May, 1869;
4 January 1872; 2 February 1922; 7 February 1946;
9, 23 January, 27 February, 10 July 1947; 13 May 1948.
Newtown (Connecticut) Bee.
18 November 1927.
27 January 1893; 30 March 1906;
New Haven (Connecticut) Register. "The Old Shepaug - The
Life and Death of a Railroad". 24 October 1954.
New Milford (Connecticut) Times. "Shepaug Valley Mourns
Passing of Rickety Railroad". 17 June 1948.
MAPS AND ATLASES
New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. Right-of-way and
Track Map: Hawleyville, June 30, 1915. (Collection
of M. E. Anderson.).
�.
1 915.
Towns and
--
R ight-of-way and Track Map: Bantam, June 3 0,
(Collection of M. E. A nderson.).
Villaqes in Litchfield County.
B eers and company, 1874.
New York:
F.W.
�
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
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In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
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The Shepaug Valley Railroad: 1866-1948an American story.
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Anderson, Mark Edward.
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Railroads
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<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=HE2791.S4.A51989">CONSULS record</a>"
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HE2791.S4.A51989
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1989
-
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�LB1062.A64
�LB1062.A64
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
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In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
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The need for creativity.
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Anderson, Nancy.
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Creative thinking
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LB1062.A641967
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1967
-
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Veterans of World War II Oral Histories
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Peretti, Burton
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2008-2009
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Abstract
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This collection contains oral histories conducted by students in the HIS 298 course at WCSU. Veterans interviewed are from the western Connecticut area.
Oral History
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Interviewee
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Andrews, Louise
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14_ww2_oh_andrews.mp3
ww2_oh_andrews.mp3
Title
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Louise Andrews interview
Creator
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Andrews, Louise
Gleeson, Mary
Description
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40 mins
Abstract
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Andrews was from Southbury, CT. She worked in the Remington Arms factory in Bridgeport making 30/30 guns parts during the war. There were all women workers. She reflects on homefront issues, rationing, VJ and VG days, peace, etc.
Date
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2008-04-22
Subject
The topic of the resource
World War, 1939-1945--Personal narratives, American
Newtown
World War II
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/134/The_Perfect_Tribute.jpeg
7ac33dfb768e8999ae5fe6c533071d3d
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Original Format
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Book
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The Perfect Tribute
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Andrews, Mary Raymond Shipman
Date
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1918
Description
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A story about Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg speech
Civil War
Gettysburg speech
Lincoln
-
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QA135.5.A67
�QA135.5.A67
�QA135.5.A67
�
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
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Western Connecticut State University
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Enrichment activities for first grade arithmetic.
Creator
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Andrus, Janet.
Subject
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Arithmetic
Mathematical recreations
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<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=QA135.5.A67">CONSULS record</a>"
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QA135.5.A67
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1965
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/275/0adc1db36d3393e3dec93cd77af9adf7.mp3
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Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
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Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
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2005-2007
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66 interviews
Abstract
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Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
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Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
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25 min
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Oral history interview with Valquirua Joseph
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Antonio, Robert
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Joseph, Valquiria
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Interview with Valquiria Joseph about her experience coming to the United States from San Paolo, Brazil.
Date
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2007
Brazil
English
Immigration
learning
Oral History
San Paolo
-
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GC211.2.A72
�GC211.2.A72
�GC211.2.A72
�GC211.2.A72
�GC211.2.A72
�
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
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In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
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Western Connecticut State University
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The principles and problems of surfing.
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Arbitelle, Janet Otto.
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Ocean waves
Surfing
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GC211.2.A72
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1969
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ML3557.A74
�ML3557.A74
�ML3557.A74
�
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
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In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
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Western Connecticut State University
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Indian music and suggestions for its use in the teaching of social studies.
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Armstrong, Beatrice M.
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Indians of North America
Indians of North America
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ML3557.A74
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1961
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https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1040/PG2951.A84.pdf
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PG2951.A84
�PG2951.A84
�PG2951.A84
�PG2951.A84
�
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
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A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
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Western Connecticut State University
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Liberal Russian literature.
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Ashe, Valentine.
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Russian literature
Russian literature
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PG2951.A84
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1964
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1347/DU710.A8.pdf
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DU710.A8
�DU710.A8
�DU710.A8
�DU710.A8
�
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Formal and informal learning in the Marshall Islands of Micronesia with special emphasis on the culture of Ujelang Atoll.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Asselta, Richard M
Subject
The topic of the resource
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=DU710.A8">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
DU710.A8
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1971
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/269/33503aaae451edaf533411e4f656ede3.mp3
ee4991d64a0597a36238d75cb1efe2a3
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
34 min.
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Irma Ruff
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Astbury, Jonathan
Subject
The topic of the resource
Ruff, Irma
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Oral interview with Irma Ruff about her experience coming to America.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Germany
Immigration
Oral History
Tuebingen
War
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._49_num._1._Clio_-_2022/6994/CLIO_2022_44_compartavie_revolutions.pdf
891b24ac20095881d76752d3d63a318e
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Vol. 49, num. 1. Clio - 2022
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2022
Subject
The topic of the resource
History
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Comparative Revolutions in Latin America
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Atherton, Kayvon
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2022-05
Description
An account of the resource
8 p.
Subject
The topic of the resource
History and criticism
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/991/PS3557.R283.Z59.pdf
6fee6c4ec9ec408953b403c3caa4636f
PDF Text
Text
PS3557.R283.Z59
�PS3557.R283.Z59
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The function of place in selected novels of Shirley Ann Grau.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Aus, Carole
Subject
The topic of the resource
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=PS3557.R283.Z591990">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
PS3557.R283.Z591990
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1990
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/259/882850a0d3c550bcd872082f583fe260.mp3
4259543ee291c6963b9079d2abd6247b
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
42 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Luis Dos Santos
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Austin, Brian
Subject
The topic of the resource
DosSantos, Luis
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Luis Dos Santos, a 35 year old WestConn Police Officer is a first generation immigrant from Portugal. Dos Santos discusses Portugese Immigration and the differing cultural aspects of American and Portugese society as well as the assimilation and cultural deviations necessitated by living in America.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Catholicism
Cultural Assimilation
Immigrant Experience
Immigration
Oral History
Path to Citizenship
Portugal
Timex Clock Factory
Waterbury
WCSU Police Department
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/69/virginia_girl001[1].pdf
6919060dc069e50ad402843fed9c290a
PDF Text
Text
��
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
A Virginia Girl in the Civil War 1861-1865
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Avary, Myrta Lockett
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1903
Description
An account of the resource
Primary resource about the Civil War
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
A record of the actual experiences of the wife of a Confederate officer
Civil War
his 298
Personal narrative
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1227/LB1050.53.A94.pdf
e39d0ca61a6e36fbc5a3eb71d83d3ec5
PDF Text
Text
LB1050.53.A94
�LB1050.53.A94
�LB1050.53.A94
�LB1050.53.A94
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The effects of an individualized, developmental reading program on the general scholastic achievement of a group of academically deficient students.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Avery, Raymond A.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Developmental reading
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB1050.53.A94">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LB1050.53.A94
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1968
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Veterans_of_World_War_II_Oral_Histories/2378/ww2_oh_baccaro.mp3
375854529fd29b716d4ef0ac19bbc236
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Veterans of World War II Oral Histories
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2008-2009
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/veterans-of-world-war-ii-oral-histories-collection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">View collection</a>
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This collection contains oral histories conducted by students in the HIS 298 course at WCSU. Veterans interviewed are from the western Connecticut area.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Interviewee
The person(s) being interviewed
Baccaro, Victor
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
9_ww2_oh_baccaro.mp3
ww2_oh_baccaro.mp3
Title
A name given to the resource
Victor Baccaro interview
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Baccaro, Dan
Baccaro, Victor
Description
An account of the resource
40 mins
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Baccaro was with US Air Army Air Corps, 390th Bomber Group. He was a gunner and bombardier. His plane was shot down by enemy fighters and captured near Magdeburg, Germany and liberated by General Patton's forces.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2008-05-06
Subject
The topic of the resource
World War, 1939-1945--Personal narratives, American
Great Britain
Prisoner of War
United States Air Force
World War II
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/997/PS3537.A426.Z54.pdf
ee7247ce62bce5776dc9b62654a7e9e6
PDF Text
Text
PS3537.A426.Z54
�PS3537.A426.Z54
�PS3537.A426.Z54
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The influence of Zen Buddhism on the works of J. D. Salinger.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bailey, Blanchette W.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Zen Buddhism
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=PS3537.A426Z54">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
PS3537.A426Z54
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1968
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/72/Fragments_From_France001.pdf
6cf118ec1844ad68394b2ca2df8a6326
PDF Text
Text
�" l\Ty d ream fol' y cnl's
to c ome."
.
.
-· i
�
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Fragments from France
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bairnsfather, Bruce
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1917
Description
An account of the resource
The book cover and a page
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Fragments from France is a collection of illustrations from World War I published in 1917.
his 298
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1173/LB1573.B36.pdf
7c4093db911e11e6f8477c66599b026c
PDF Text
Text
LB1573.B36
�LB1573.B36
�LB1573.B36
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
An examination of the progress in reading skills of eight selected pupils between grade I and grade IV.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Baldauf, Joanne Meyers.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Reading (Elementary)
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB1573.B36">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LB1573.B36
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1967
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/243/8d4805b26ec73cbb1b8a46dd40c57dbe.mp3
3ebdfd4095d346fdb5e5380c1056445e
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
34 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Francesco D. Piselli
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Ballaro, Kimberly
Subject
The topic of the resource
Piselli, FrancescoD.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Francesco describes the state of his homeland after WWII and goes on to tell of his family's immigration. He describes the financial motivations of many Italian immigrants, including his own family's.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Abbey
Immigration
Italian Education System
Italy
Oral History
Rome
World War I
World War II
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/905/RC280.H4B36.pdf
c1944f14ada92e7c73942683d7e018aa
PDF Text
Text
RC280.H4B36
�RC280.H4B36
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The relationship of resuscitative fluids in intracranial pressure in individuals with non-penetrating, isolated head injury.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Banda, Barbara.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Head
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=RC280.H4B36">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
RC280.H4B36
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1995
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._02_num._2_Clio_-_1975/2242/Clio_2.2_[1974]_Essay_2.pdf
1afa5288121da24dd5702e6c3aa18761
PDF Text
Text
-15S chliemann a nd The Meaning o f T roy
* ****
BARBARA COIE
~
Dream o f T roy, A rnold B rackman 1 s m ost r ecent b ook, i s a b iography o f
H einrich S chliemann.
T he b iography shows -a man p ossessed b y a d ream w hich d etermines-
the c ourse o f h is l ife.
B ut t he b ook i s a lso a d efense o f a man s o r esented b y
h is p eers t hat t hey made h im a n h istorical m onster.
r ecerd s traight.
T he b ock h as
p eople s hape h istory.
M r. B rackman i s o ut t o s et t he
a nother p urpose; i t a lso p resents t he t heory t hat
H istory i s made b y t wo k inds o f
p eople: t he p erson o f
t hought a nd t he p erson o f a ction.
Examples· w ould b e Marx a s a p erson o f t hought
a nd H itler a s a p erson o f a ction.
S chliemann i s i n t he f ormer c atagory, b ut h e i s
a lso a man i n s earch o f a d ream.
As a s mall c hild S chliemann's a dventurous f ancy
T roy i n f lames.
wasf~~~inated
b y a p icture o f
The h eroes a nd t heir e xploits i n t he t hen f abled c ity o f T rqy
c aptured h is i magination a nd H einrich r emained a c aptive t he r est o f h is l ife.
As
h e g rew o lder, T roy r emained a n i deal b ut i t t ook o n new d imensions.
I n S chliemann' s m aturity, T roy b ecame t he j ustification f or h is i nvolvement i n
t he b usiness w orld.
T roy.
He r ealized e arly i n l ife t hat a p oor man c ould n ot d iscover
O nly a w ealthy man w ould h ave e nough l eisure t ime a nd e nough money t o f inance
t he c ostly u nearthing o f T roy.
S ince t he u nearthing o f T roy was S chliemann 1 s g oal
i n l ife, h e d ecided h e m ust f irst become a w ealthy m an.
T hus d uring h is m ercantile
y ears, S chliemann u sed T roy a s t he r eason f or suC'cead.ir:g i n b usiness.
The s ometimes
t ainted t actics h e u sed c ould b e j ustified b ecause t hey s erved a g reat i dealistic
e nd.
dent.
T hey e nabled S chliemann t o o btain m ore money a nd become f inancially i ndepenl fuen h e r eached t his i ndependence h e c ould d evote a ll h is t ime t o t he s earch
f or T roy.
I t's t he o ld s tory: means t o a n e nd a re u nimportant, i t i s t he e nd t hat
m atters.
Thus S chliemann s aw h ilnself o ne r ung a bove t he a verage b usinessman o f h is
d ay.
He was 1iiTOrking f or a n i deal; o thers w ere o nly '!rJOrking f or m oney.
T roy a lso r aised S chliemann's p osition o n t he s ocial l adder.
A fter t he d is-
�- 16covery o f T roy, t he c ity a nd a ll c onnected w ith i t became t he v ogue o f t he d ay. As
a r esult
Schl~emann,
i ts d iscoverer, became more p opular.
He was a ble t o m eet
p eople s uch a s t he K ing o f B razil a nd G ladstone, t he P rime U inister o f E ngland.
If
h e were t he r un-of-the-mill w ealthy m erchant h e n ever would h ave met t hese p eople.
T herefore, T roy s erved a s a p assport i nto t he h igher s trata o f s ociety.
A nother p urpose o f The Dream o f T roy i s t o make T roy c ontemporary.
T roy wns
n ot m erely t he s cene o f a g reat N ar o r one m an's i deal: i t was a c ivilization w hich
was c ompletely d estroyed--nuclearized, t o b e e xact.
vived t he h olocaust o f T roy.
sively p rove i t e xisted.
No w riting o f a ny k ind s ur-
T here i s n othing l eft o f t he c ity t hat c an c onclu-
I t i s H r. Brackman's b elief t hat T roy i s more t han j sut
o ur p ast; i t may b e o ur d estiny.
The c ontemporary c ould e asily b e n uclearized and
become a myth t o f urture g enerations.
I f h istory c an t each, a n u nderstanding o f
T roy c ould b e c ontemporary m an's k ey t o s urvival.
T his book a lso s erves tliO t her p urposes.
One, i t c lears t he r ecord o f a much
m aligned h istorical c haracter and s econdly, i t g ives u s a p ortrait o f a man o f a ctio1
t hat e xceptional c haracter who t hrough h is f orce o f ; dll a nd p ersonality c hanges t he
c ourse o f h istory.
B efore S chliemann a rcheology was a m ental e xercise.
l ogic and q uotes f rom a ncient w ritings.
I t was a r are a ccasion when someone p roved
t heir t heories b y p hysically u nearthing e vidence.
h e r evolutionized a rcheology.
1~en
S chliemann d iscovered T roy,
I t was no l onger a d rawing room e xercise.
a t heory one had t o g et h is h ands d irty.
e xcessive r ebuke t oward t he r evolutionary.
a g old-digger t o a n i diot.
T heories w ere p roven b y
To p rove
P redictably t he o ld g uard r eacted w ith
They c alled S chliemann e verything f rom
However, t he o ld g uard f ought a l osing b attle.
E ven-
tually S chliemann, t hrough h is own a nd h is w ife's p ersorvcrence, c hanged t he c ourse
o f a rcheology; i t was no l onger
jus~
a m ental e xercise; i t was p hysical a s w ell.
I n c onclusion, one c an d ivide S chliemann i nto two men.
One, t he man who u sed
T roy a s a p sychological s alve; i t g ave p urpose t o h is l ife a nd made h is l ess t han
e thical a ctions a l ittle e asier t o b ear.
The o ther man was t he r evolutionary who
c hanged t he w orld o f a rcheology f rom one o f t hought t o one o f a ction.
�
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Vol. 02, num. 2, Clio - 1975
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1975
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Physical Dimensions
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2 pgs
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Schliemann and The Meaning of Troy
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
BARBARA COIE
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/914/RA1231.R2B47.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
RA1231.R2B47
�RA1231.R2B47
�RA1231.R2B47
�RA1231.R2B47
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
A survey of the biological effects of radiation on the blood.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Barchi, Peter M.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Blood
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=RA1231.R2B47">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
RA1231.R2B47
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1960
-
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PDF Text
Text
PN81.B31
�PN81.B31
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
An introduction to the creative theory of criticism used in the examination of two arts, painting and literature.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Barkman, Patricia Ruth.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Criticism
Literature
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=PN81.B31">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
PN81.B31
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1972
-
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
HIS 498, Spring 2019
Sound
A resource primarily intended to be heard. Examples include a music playback file format, an audio compact disc, and recorded speech or sounds.
Duration
Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.)
60 min.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
cassette
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
"The Voice of Firestone" Cassette
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Barlow, Howard, 1892-1972
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1938
Description
An account of the resource
60min., cassette
Subject
The topic of the resource
Crooks, Richard, 1900-1972
Firestone, Harvey Samuel, 1868-1938
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Recordings of "The Voice of Firestone" NBC radio program; "10th anniversary program with Richard Crooks" and "The Passing of Harvey S. Firestone"
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
mp3
Harvey S. Firestone
Howard Barlow
National Broadcasting Company
Orchestra music
Radio Progam
Richard Crooks
The Voice of Firestone
-
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https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/HIS_498_Spring_2019/2608/ms001_10_55_1948b.mp3
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
HIS 498, Spring 2019
Sound
A resource primarily intended to be heard. Examples include a music playback file format, an audio compact disc, and recorded speech or sounds.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
cassette
Duration
Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.)
60 min.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
"The Voice of Firestone" Cassette
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Barlow, Howard, 1892-1972
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1948
Description
An account of the resource
60min., cassette
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Recording of NBC Radio program "The Voice of Firestone" with Eleanor Steber and Thomas Thomas
Subject
The topic of the resource
Steber, Eleanor
Thomas, Thomas L.
Eleanor Steber
Howard Barlow
National Broadcasting Company
NBC Radio
Radio Progam
The Voice of Firestone
Thomas L. Thomas
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/HIS_498_Spring_2019/2609/ms001_10_55_HowardBarlowSings.mp3
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
HIS 498, Spring 2019
Sound
A resource primarily intended to be heard. Examples include a music playback file format, an audio compact disc, and recorded speech or sounds.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
cassette
Duration
Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.)
3 min.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Howard Barlow Sings cassette
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Barlow, Howard, 1892-1972
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
ca. 1940
Description
An account of the resource
3 min., cassette
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Howard Barlow sang at "The Voice of the Firestone" rehearsal because a singer was late
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
mp3
Howard Barlow
NBC Radio
The Voice of Firestone
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1075/LC5303.N38B37.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
LC5303.N38B37
�LC5303.N38B37
�LC5303.N38B37
�LC5303.N38B37
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
An evaluation of the summer choral workshop in adult education in Northeastern United States.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Barnhart, Charlotte B.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Adult education
Music
Choral music x Instruction and study
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LC5303.N38B37">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LC5303.N38B37
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1971
-
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
HIS 498, Spring 2019
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Brighton Beach Memoirs- Poster and Program
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Barrett, Dawn S.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1986
Description
An account of the resource
11 x 17", poster; 8.5 x 11", program
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Poster and program for the WCSU production of "Brighton Beach Memoirs," performed in the Berkshire Theatre. Directed by Richard Reimold, designed by J. Robin Modereger.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Brighton Beach Memoirs (Stage play)
Simon, Neil, 1927-2018
Western Connecticut State University, Communications and Theatre Arts Department
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
Western Connecticut State University
Berkshire Hall
Communications and Theater Arts
J. Robin Modereger
Neil Simon
Plays
Posters
Programs
Richard Reimold
William Walton
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1243/LB1033.B37.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
LB1033.B37
�LB1033.B37
�LB1033.B37
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Role of the primary grade teacher in teacher-parent-child relationships.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Baske, Veronica Mary.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Teacher-student relationships
Parent-teacher relationships
Schools
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB1033.B37">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LB1033.B37
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1957
-
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PDF Text
Text
LB1525.B376
�LB1525.B376
�LB1525.B376
�LB1525.B376
�LB1525.B376
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
A study of the place of a formal reading program in the kindergarten curriculum.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bass, Dorothy.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Reading (primary)
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB1525.B376">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LB1525.B376
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1972
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/962/QA141.15.B3.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
QA141.15.B3
�QA141.15.B3
�QA141.15.B3
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Number in the kindergarten.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bassette, Mildred Charlotte.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Arithmetic
Number concept in children
Arithmetic readiness
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=QA141.15.B3">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
QA141.15.B3
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1960
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/984/QA11.B34.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
QA11.B34
�QA11.B34
�QA11.B34
�QA11.B34
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Modern mathematics and skill building.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bates, Harry.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Mathematics
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=QA11.B34">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
QA11.B34
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1976
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._46_num._1_Clio_-_2019/6982/Clio_2019_final_copy_38_Baseball.pdf
96e5be20dff98b4f359873207f97aad1
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Vol. 46, num. 1, Clio - 2019
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2019
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Labor Issues in Early Baseball
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bates, Steven
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2019-05
Description
An account of the resource
18 p.
Subject
The topic of the resource
History and criticism
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/917/R726.B43.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
R726.B43
�R726.B43
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Predisposition of long term care nurses versus acute care nurses to withdrawing or maintaining life-sustaining tube feedings.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Beck, Deborah J.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Artificial feeding
Life support systems (Critical care)
Medical ethics
Has Version
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<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=R726.B43">CONSULS record</a>"
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R726.B43
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1995
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1321/GB428.P46B43.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
GB428.P46B43
�GB428.P46B43
�
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
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In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
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Western Connecticut State University
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Becrock control of drainage patterns through glacial debris.
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Beck, Richard S.
Subject
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Geomorphology
Geomorphology
Drainage
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<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=GB428.P46B43">CONSULS record</a>"
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GB428.P46B43
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1988
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/879/RT24.B43.pdf
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RT24.B43
�RT24.B43
�RT24.B43
�
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
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Western Connecticut State University
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The use of basic writing skills by senior nursing students.
Creator
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Becker, Sharon S.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Communication in nursing
Nursing
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<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=RT24.B431988">CONSULS record</a>"
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RT24.B431988
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1988
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1172/LB1573.B43.pdf
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LB1573.B43
�LB1573.B43
�LB1573.B43
�
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Title
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
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Western Connecticut State University
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Title
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Teaching beginning reading through the experience approach.
Creator
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Beckley, Sharon B.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Reading elementary
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<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB1573.B43">CONSULS record</a>"
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LB1573.B43
Date
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1963
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/260/7731a928068d12bf2b1cc1740dbc4243.mp3
97fa25dd731ee99adf7ce6fd1ce88dd3
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Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
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Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
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2005-2007
Description
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66 interviews
Abstract
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Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
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Immigration and Memory Project
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Oral History
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27 min
Title
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Oral history interview with Luciano Bedini
Creator
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Bedini, Luke
Subject
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Bedini, Luciano
Abstract
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Luciano immigrated with his family as a young age in search of a better life. He describes their seven year wait to obtain a Visa and the scrutinization that accompanied it.
Date
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2007
Immigration
Italy
Oral History
Visa process
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1208/LB1525.24.B44.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
LB1525.24.B44
�LB1525.24.B44
�LB1525.24.B44
�
Dublin Core
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Title
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
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Western Connecticut State University
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A comparison of three methods for the teaching of reading in the first grade.
Creator
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Beers, Carol Ann.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Reading (primary)
Initial teaching alphabet
Basal reading instruction
Words in color
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<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB1525.24.B44">CONSULS record</a>"
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LB1525.24.B44
Date
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1975
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/959/QA159.B44.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
QA159.B44
�QA159.B44
�QA159.B44
�QA159.B44
�
Dublin Core
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Title
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
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Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
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A study of the use of correlations between computational ability, reading comprehension, and achievement in algebra as a method of grouping students in algebra one.
Creator
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Beers, Morris I.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Algebra
Reading
Mathematical ability
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<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=QA159.B44">CONSULS record</a>"
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QA159.B44
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1968
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1171/LB1573.B45.pdf
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Text
LB1573.B45
�LB1573.B45
�LB1573.B45
�LB1573.B45
�
Dublin Core
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Title
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WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
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Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
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Title
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Reading for today's problem beginners:A three-way analysis with needs, methods, and materials.
Creator
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Behunek, Elizabeth.
Subject
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Reading (primary)
Slow learning children
Reading, Psychology of
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<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB1573.B45">CONSULS record</a>"
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LB1573.B45
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1970
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._47_num._1_Clio_-_2020/6736/10_Belcourt_Malcolm_X.pdf
e2c63d4d757a796c7e839593d6f04e61
PDF Text
Text
Clio: WCSU History Journal
Malcolm X: A Journey in Discovering Islam
Erin Belcourt
Malcolm X is an example of the profound impact that Islam can have
on a person’s life. From a childhood marked by experiences of racism and
imprisonment, to an adulthood as a Nation of Islam leader, to becoming an
orthodox Muslim, Malcolm’s journey was never easy. After a traumatic
childhood convinced him that there was no room for black people in racist
America, Malcolm X joined the Nation of Islam, a group he believed
exemplified hope for those African Americans who felt marginalized and
endangered while living in America. The Nation of Islam gave him the
strength to find his voice and speak against the injustice that African
Americans endured. Eventually, in hopes of strengthening his religion after a
conflict with the Nation of Islam leader Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X went
on hajj to Mecca. It was on this trip he discovered that he was not truly a part
of or following the religion of Islam. Rejecting the Nation of Islam for the
extreme misinterpretation of Islamic doctrines, Malcolm X, now El-Shabazz,
only experiences one year of living as an orthodox Muslim before being
assassinated at a public speech. It is this turbulent journey that stands as an
example of the changing image of Islam in America and the common
misunderstandings of those who follow the religion.
The national figure known as Malcolm X was born Malcolm Little on
May 19, 1925 in Omaha, Nebraska. At only four years old, Malcolm
experienced his “earliest vivid memory”; his home in Michigan was burned to
the ground in a fire. Malcolm suggests years later in his autobiography that a
local white supremacist group had started the fire.1 Little’s childhood was
littered with encounters with racism that permanently shaped his view of
1Robert
E. Terrill, The Cambridge Companion to Malcolm X. (Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 2012), x. There is no official proof that the fire was started by a white
supremacy group. While this is commonly what is reported the only evidence of this comes
from Malcolm’s autobiography.
80
�Belcourt, Malcolm X
America and white Americans. Two years after the house fire, Malcolm X’s
father was run over by a streetcar; once again his autobiography suggests foul
play by white Americans.2 Soon after this devastating experience, his mother,
Louise Little, was declared insane, and Malcolm, at the age of seven, along
with his eight siblings, were split into the foster care system, eventually
becoming wards of the state. This turbulent childhood led him to a life “of vice
and crime, including bootlegging, pimping, and selling drugs.”3 While serving
a sentence for these crimes, Malcolm’s siblings began to write to him about a
new religion they had joined. The Nation of Islam, led by Elijah Muhammad,
was full of strict rules that would help Malcolm develop self-discipline,
something Malcolm lacked throughout his upbringing as he traveled from
home to home. While still serving his sentence, Little was encouraged to give
up smoking and eating pork, important Islamic principles.4
Malcolm was not originally convinced that this new religion was worth
following as his previous experience with religion was based on the acts of the
Caucasian Christians that had inflicted pain throughout his childhood. His
brother Reginald explained, “in this religion God, or Allah, was a black man”
in a letter that ultimately convinced Malcolm to research the Nation of Islam
and Elijah Muhammad.5 Devouring Islamic literature while in prison,
Malcolm Little converted to Islam. These early experiences formed Malcolm
X’s complete distrust of what he termed “white Americans” and thus made the
religion of Islam the only attractive alternative for him.
Customary to the Nation of Islam, “a new convert dropped his or her
‘slave,’ or last name and adopted simply an X to signify an unknown African
ancestry,” and thus Malcolm Little became Malcolm X, signifying his religious
conversion.6 The Nation of Islam represented a new beginning for Malcolm
and many other African Americans. For those who lived a troubled life full of
exposure to racism, the Nation of Islam’s religious practices and mythology
allowed African Americans to realign their identity “distancing them from
Terrill, x.
Jane I. Smith, Islam in America, (NY, Columbia University Press, 1999), 85.
4 Robert L. Jenkins and Mfanya Donald Tryman, The Malcolm X Encyclopedia, (Westport,
CT, Greenwood Press, 2002), 20.
5 Jenkins and Tryman,The Malcolm X Encyclopedia, 20.
6 Smith, Islam in America,82.
2
3
81
�Clio: WCSU History Journal
their racist social and political context” within the United States.7 No other
member of the Nation of Islam took advantage of the new beginning, like
Malcolm X. Months after being released from prison he wrote about “the
positive, liberating effect the quotidian routines in a Nation of Islam
household had on him.”8 Following the Nation of Islam set forth a new set of
expectations and rules that gave followers a sense of positive self-worth and
unity. This unity was also seen globally by followers as all Muslims “pray
facing the East to be in unity with the rest of our 725 million brothers and
sisters in the entire Muslim world.”9 Malcolm X flourished following the
Nation of Islam, and due to his devotion and studies, he began to travel all
across the country giving lectures and organizing on behalf of Elijah
Muhammad and the Nation of Islam.10 His influence in America did not end
there; Malcolm also helped found Muhammad Speaks, the national
newspaper and official voice of Islam.11
During the twelve years that Malcolm X spent touring the country, he
spoke primarily on the Nation of Islam to an audience comprised mainly of
African Americans. The timing of his speeches made Malcolm X a critical
voice in the Civil Rights Movement. Malcolm began “speaking nationally and
internationally about the circumstances of blacks in American society and
about the opportunity presented by the NOI to alter those circumstances.”12
While both the Nation of Islam and the Civil Rights Movement wanted to help
African Americans achieve equality and a better quality of life, the Civil Rights
Movement sought to reach this goal through “integration- a goal which Elijah
Muhammad and Malcolm X denounced in favor of independence, self-help,
and separatism.”13 The Nation of Islam hoped to create a place for African
Americans separate from Caucasian Americans; this was in accordance to the
Nation of Islam’s mythology that the black race would become dominant
again. Leaders such as Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X did not believe that
Kambiz GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam in America: From the New World to the New
World Order, (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2012), 232.
8 GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam, 232.
9 Ibid, 232.
10 Ibid, 243.
11 Ibid, 243.
12 Smith, Islam in America, 86.
13 GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam, 282.
7
82
�Belcourt, Malcolm X
equality let alone dominance would be possible in traditional America.
Malcolm X spoke about his frustration with America stating, “this is American
democracy, and those of you who are familiar with it know that, in America,
democracy is hypocrisy…. If democracy means freedom, then why don’t we
have freedom? If democracy means justice, then why don’t we have justice? If
democracy means equality, then why don’t we have equality?”14
In 1959, the frustrations of Malcolm X and the movement were brought
to national attention through the WNTA-TV documentary The Hate That
Hate Produced.15 While the film hoped to deter Americans from segregation
and racism, it instead brought upon fear in white Americans that the Nation
of Islam was the violent and revengeful child of racism.16 The Nation of Islam,
while firm in its stance on injustice, was not rageful; instead, the Nation
sought to reach equality through “uplifting black Americans by fostering a
new black self and Society through religious beliefs and practices.”17 As
misunderstood as the documentary was, it propelled Malcolm X into the
spotlight and made him a leading figure in the Civil Rights movement, despite
his differing views. It also led the Nation of Islam to become “one of the most
successful black nationalist movements in American history.”18 However,
toward the end of his career, “Malcolm came to realize that the NOI’s goals of
racial and religious separation were ineffective in advancing the African
American community in the United States” and began to seek a more
moderate solution by partnering with other Civil Rights leaders.19 This
realization foreshadowed the eventual departure of Malcolm X from the
Nation of Islam.
The popularity of Malcolm X, the documentary on the Nation of Islam,
and associated media in which Malcolm X spoke gave many Americans their
first exposure to the religion of Islam. This new exposure caused many issues
as the Nation of Islam and the actual religion of Islam were based on
contradictory principles. These differences start with the “doctrine of human
Ibid, 242.
Ibid, 243.
16 GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam, 243.
17 Ibid, 244.
18 Ibid, 244.
19 Jenkins and Tryman,The Malcolm X Encyclopedia, 28.
14
15
83
�Clio: WCSU History Journal
origin.” The Nation of Islam believes the black race was created in Allah’s
image, and the white man was a descendant of the devil.20 This is a drastic
difference from Eastern Islam, which identifies as a part of the Abrahamic
religion. Eastern Isalm, Judaism, and Christianity, all follow the origin story
that the human race was started by Adam and Eve, in the story, there is no
indication of the race of the couple. This major difference was one that few
members of the Nation of Islam realized. This contradiction goes beyond the
doctrine of human origin as even in the days “of the Prophet Muhammad...all
people in all races are equal before God,” making the belief that white people
are the devil a further step away from what traditional Islam intends. The
Nation of Islam’s leader Elijah Muhammad took the separation lightly
explaining, “my people must be dealt with on a special basis, because their
background and circumstances are different from those prevailing elsewhere
in the world. You cannot use the same medicine to treat altogether different
diseases.”21 Despite knowing the differences between traditional Islam and
the Nation of Islam, Elijah Muhammad made no effort to unite these groups.
In fact, Elijah divided the groups even farther by claiming that he was a
prophet sent by God to lead the African American people. To those from true
traditional Islam, the preachings of Elijah Muhammad are blasphemy as the
“Qur’an affirms that Muhammad is the seal and the last in a long line of
prophets,” not Elijah Muhammad.22 These differences made the Nation of
Islam very different from traditional Islamic principles. This proves to be very
problematic as The Nation of Islam is the first widely publicized interaction
that Americans had with the religion. The dramatic differences were not
discussed amongst followers of the Nation of Islam or widely publicized,
leaving Americans to make assumptions that the entire religion believed in
these principles.
In 1963-1964, Elijah Muhammad was accused of fathering children
with two of his former secretaries while serving as the leader of the Nation of
Islam.23 These rumors of adultery shocked Malcolm X.24 Once a devoted
Smith, Islam in America, 81.
GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam, 260.
22 Smith, Islam in America, 82.
23 Jenkins and Tryman, The Malcolm X Encyclopedia, 15.
20
21
84
�Belcourt, Malcolm X
follower of Elijah Muhammad, these rumors made Malcolm question the
leader he once blindly followed. Malcolm then began to be more vocal about
politics and civil rights issues, speaking on behalf of the Nation of Islam
without the consent of Elijah Muhammad and offering no explanation to the
rumors circling the Nation of Islam leader. When Malcolm X commented
“that John F. Kennedy’s assassination was a case of chickens coming home to
roost, the natural outcome of a violence prevalent in America,” this statement
“was interpreted as his somehow sanctioning the president’s death.” Malcolm
X’s comment gave Elijah Muhammad the means to punish him.25 Elijah
Muhammad used this bold comment to silence Malcolm X from talking to the
media for three months, hoping that forcing Malcolm X into silence would
allow him enough time to convince Malcolm X to speak of his innocence.
Additionally, during that time, “Malcolm was removed as a minister of New
York’s Temple number 7” as Malcolm was no longer thought fit to lead a
Nation of Islam congregation.26
As a result, Malcolm X in 1964 went on Hajj.27 It was on this journey to
the holy land of Mecca that Malcolm X “ came face-to-face with the
discrepancies between the teachings of the Nation and the Islamic beliefs and
practices upheld by millions of Muslims outside of it” for the first time.28
Malcolm X, a previous leader of the Nation of Islam, found that he was not
adequately trained and could not perform “the ritual for prayer or some of the
basic requirements of living an Islamic life.”29 Upon returning, Malcolm X
wrote about his experience explaining his shock to see “all races, all colors,blue-eyed blondes to black skinned Africans- in true brotherhood! In unity!
Living as one! Worshipping as one!” while completing Hajj.30 His previous
Known in Muslim countries as Zina, the act of adultery is seen as a highly offensive sin.
Zina is apart of the hadd crimes, meaning that the punishment of 100 lashes, is Quranically
specified. The rumors that Elijah Muhhamad had committed zina not once, but with two
separate secretaries resulting in the birth of children, showed the Nation of Islam leader in
direct violation in the laws of his relgion.
25 Smith, Islam in America, 88.
26 Smith, Islam in America, 88.
27 Hajj is the pilgrimage to Mecca. It is trip required of all able-bodied muslims in which
followers travel to the holy land to participate in holy rituals which trace the steps of the
Prohphet Muhammad.
28 GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam, 244.
29 Smith, Islam in America, 88.
30 GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam, 244.
24
85
�Clio: WCSU History Journal
convictions that the African American population needed to be separated
from the Caucasian devil were completely destroyed. To symbolize these
changes, his official departure from the Nation of Islam and his conversion to
an orthodox Muslim; Malcolm X “changed his name to El-Hajj Malik elShabazz.”31
El-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz was still a national icon in the United States.
His focus switched following his departure from the Nation of Islam. The once
stubborn separatist now wanted to work together with civil rights leaders in
order to better the lives of African Americans. El-Shabazz founded his own
organization, the Muslim Mosque Inc. He hoped to attract membership from
all classes and groups and the African American community, however, this
organization was legally created as a religious organization that did not meet
the full needs of the African American people.32 El-Shabazz created another
organization called the “Organization of Afro- American Unity as a vehicle
internationalizing the struggles of black Americans.”33 Unfortunately, ElShabazz did not get to complete his vision. El-Shabazz, formerly known as
Malcolm X, was assassinated while addressing a crowd in New York in
February 1965 by rival Black Muslims.
It is hard to imagine what could have happened if El-Shabazz had not
been killed. His strong opinions and dynamic public persona had drawn
global attention to the Nation of Islam. With only one year between his
conversion to an orthodox Muslim and his untimely death. El-Shabazz had
just begun to make new organizations and motions toward peace and unity.
Being a public figure, El- Shabazz was not given a lot of time to adjust to his
new beliefs. He was trapped in the spotlight, with new ideas that directly
contradicted the points that he had once stubbornly fought over. The
followers of Malcolm X were confused, should they make their own
conversion toward peace and the mainstream civil rights movement or should
they stay with the Nation of Islam and fight for separation. There,
unfortunately, was no middle ground for the former followers of Malcolm X.
The Nation of Islam faced mass scrutiny as the new statements of El-Shabazz
Smith, Islam in America, 89.
Jenkins and Tryman, The MAlcolm X Encyclopedia, 29.
33 GhaneaBassiri, A History of Islam, 245.
31
32
86
�Belcourt, Malcolm X
directly contradicted their belief system. This growing web of conflicting
religious and political beliefs is ultimately what trapped El-Shabazz. The
death of El-Shabazz is a tragedy. Had El-Shabazz not been killed for his
silence, the civil rights movement and the image of Islam in the United States
would have been changed for the better.
87
�
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Vol. 47, num. 1, Clio - 2020
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2020
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
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Title
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Malcolm X
Is Part Of
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Clio
Creator
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Belcourt, Erin
Description
An account of the resource
8 pgs
Date
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2020
Publisher
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Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
Subject
The topic of the resource
History
Identifier
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10_Belcourt,_Malcolm_X
-
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Dublin Core
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Title
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Vol. 49, num. 1. Clio - 2022
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2022
Subject
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History
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
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Cover: All of History in One Place
Creator
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Belletzkie, Christopher
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2022-05
Description
An account of the resource
1 p.
Subject
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History
Publisher
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Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1340/E457.2.B4.pdf
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E457.2.B4
�E457.2.B4
�E457.2.B4
�E457.2.B4
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
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Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
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Dublin Core
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Title
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The attitude of Abraham Lincoln toward the Negro.
Creator
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Benson, Christopher
Subject
The topic of the resource
Has Version
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<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=E457.2.B4">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
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E457.2.B4
Date
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1966
-
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PDF Text
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QK569.C63B47
�QK569.C63B47
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
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Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Chemical and physical parameters influencing the dominance of chrysophyte algae and the lack of blue green algal blooms in Forest Lake, Ct.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Benson, George A.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Chrysophyceae
Algae
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=QK569.C63B47">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
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QK569.C63B47
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1993
-
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PDF Text
Text
QA482.B47
�QA482.B47
�QA482.B47
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Kirigami polygon constructions for the general mathematics secondary school classroom.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Berenson, Sarah R.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Polygons
Geometrical constructions
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=QA482.B47">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
QA482.B47
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1974
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1083/LC4661.B47.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
LC4661.B47
�LC4661.B47
�LC4661.B47
�LC4661.B47
�LC4661.B47
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
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Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
The relationship of the self-concept to underachievement.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Berkeley, Diane G.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Underachievers
Slow learning students
Self perception
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LC4661.B47">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
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LC4661.B47
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1966
-
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PDF Text
Text
LC3993.22.B47
�LC3993.22.B47
�LC3993.22.B47
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
An enrichment program in general science for gifted children in grade eight.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Berkowitz, Milton.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Gifted children
Science
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LC3993.22.B47">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LC3993.22.B47
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1961
-
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PDF Text
Text
BF723.S28B47
�BF723.S28B47
�BF723.S28B47
�BF723.S28B47
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
The relationship of creative self-expression in art to the emerging self-concept of the elementary school child.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bernstein, Barbara.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Self-perception in children
Creative ability in children
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=BF723.S28B47">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
BF723.S28B47
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1968
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/872/RT82.8.B47.pdf
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Text
RT82.8.B47
�RT82.8.B47
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
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Knowledge resources utilized and preferred by nurse practitioners.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bernstein, Karla.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Nurse practitioners
Nursing
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=RT82.8.B47">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
RT82.8.B47
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1992
-
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Text
QA162.B47
�QA162.B47
�QA162.B47
�QA162.B47
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
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Abstract algebraits history and applications.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Berry, Maureen S. M.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Algebra, Abstract
Has Version
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<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=QA162.B47">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
QA162.B47
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1974
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1315/GV182.9.B5.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
GV182.9.B5
�GV182.9.B5
�GV182.9.B5
�GV182.9.B5
�
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
An analysis of the Ridgefield, Connecticut recreation program for children ages six through eighteen.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Biagotti, Fabio Paul.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Recreation
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=GV182.9.B5">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
GV182.9.B5
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1964
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/HIS_298_U.S._Veterans_Oral_History_Project_Fall_2017/2402/INTERVIEW.mp3
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Dublin Core
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Title
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HIS 298, U.S. Veterans Oral History Project, Fall 2017
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Doherty, Shannon
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2017
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Location
The location of the interview
Danbury, Connecticut
Duration
Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.)
20 Minutes
Dublin Core
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Title
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Muy Cando, Luis
Creator
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Bielizna, George
Marquis, Zach
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2017
Description
An account of the resource
A talk with a modern American soldier and the benefits of enlisting in the military
Subject
The topic of the resource
United States--History, Military--21st century
Language
A language of the resource
English
Date Submitted
Date of submission of the resource. Examples of resources to which a Date Submitted may be relevant are a thesis (submitted to a university department) or an article (submitted to a journal).
12/7/2017
War on Terror
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._03_num._3_Clio_-_1976/2282/Essay_3.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
_...,_
....
T EE B EGHHliNGf. OF I NDUSTP.Y I N E IGHTEENTH CE!~TURY D ANBURY
B ill D evlin
r ·rost p eople knmo~ f rom s ouvenir m aps a nd c apsule h istories t hat
D cnbury ' :1egan ~ . s a t iny a qricul t ural s~ttlement i n t he v icinity o f
S outh a nd P ain S treets i n 1 684 a nd q rew i n t he n ineteenth a nd e arly
t vrentieth c enturies t o h e k nm·m a s t he h at c enter o f t he U nited
S tEttcs. F e¥7 p eople r ealize t hat 2 00 y ears a go D anbury ' l't!as t he s cene
o f a d iverse ! :'ange o f a ctivities t hat f oreshadoNec'l, t he a dvent o f t he
i ndustrial r evolution.
T hroughout n ost o f t he e ighteenth c entury, D anbury w as a s teadily
g rowing, a gricultural co~munity t hat i ncluded B ethel a nd t he s outhern
p art o f B rooJ:;:fielcl. . Alena i ts r n.ain t horouahfare, Tmvn S treet, 'l't!ere
·t he h omes, s hops, t averns- and s tores o f do~ens o f t radesmen a nd
m erchants. T hese m en c onstituted c. p rosperous r nic.dle a nd u pper
c lass t hat h eld n ost o f t he p ositions i n t he l ocal g overnment.
=:_,,"":;,::·•'!! ·~
S maller c 8nters o f p opulation i n o utlying d istricts w ere c lustered
a round c hurches, t averns o r g eneral s tores.
T hree t ypes o f l.-'7ater-po~7ered m ills s erveG t he a gricultural
t he e ssential g ristmill, t he sc:n•'!':',ill a nd t he f ulling
m ill. T he f irst g ristmill i s s aid t o h ave b een b uilt i n 1 702 h y
W akefield D ihble o n B eaver B rook, t :Jhere R oute 6 c rosses i t.
I n t he
l atter p art o f t he c entury, C aleb B enedict a nd H ajor D aniel S tarr
a lso r an g ristrills i n t his a rea. S tarr, o ne o f D anbury's r ichest
: men, m..rned a S<"~·'IJT\ill n earr.y a nd a t h is f l_eath h ad s even s laves vJho
f urnished p art o f t he l abor f or h is e nterprises.
community~
S a\•ffi'lills ' \:mre a n o bvious n ecessity \ '?here t he l and v as b eirg
c le.arec_ f or f a.rms. A s mall \ ·Jooden f lutter H heel p m·rcred a s m•7 u p
e.nc_ GO\vn A S a. s licing c arria0e, p ropelled h y a s econd ' tvheel 9 m oved
t he l og a long. Wood u as a lso u sed i n g reat q uantities b y t he n umerous l ocal b lacksmiths a nd p articularly f or t he f orges o f t he I ron~orks t hat p roduced b ar i ron.
A t t he f ulling m ill, o r c lothier's w orks 1 a c lothier c leaned
a nd d ressed p ieces o f h omespun a nd l ocally : nade 't·JOolen c loth J>y s ub-·
j ecting i t t o a t hree o r f our Clay p ounding b y v rater-pm,_rered h ammers
i n a v at ~!here i t t :ad f irst b een m ixed " dth " fuller's e arth".
F ollm·.7 ing t his, i t ' Has s tretched o ut o n t enterhooks (a_ w ooden f rame)
t o d ry.
Tf'_e na~ o f t he c loth ' ''as r aised u sing a f uller's t easel 1
t hen i t " ms c ut i nto l engths a nd i f n ecessary, d yed. T hese p rocesses
\ 'Jere l ater t aken o ver h y m achines w hich d uplicated t hose a ntiquated
p ractices. F vE=mtually t he o perations ~-Jere u nified a nd m echanized
i n t he t extilE' T 'lills o f t he n ineteE',nth c entury. Ho e xamples r emain
t oday o f f ulling : nills. T hese m ills s hared t he r ivers a nd s treams
'ltd t h t c:mneries "terhich u sed l ocal o ak a nd h emlock h ark, g round h y
h orse-driven b ark m ills, a s t heir t anning a gent a nd s upplied t he
111any s hoer s addle, a nd h arness m akers.
D uring t he A merican R evolution, s ections o f n anbury 't•Iere b urned
b y t he B ritish. O ne r eason f or T yron's r aid m ay h ave b een t he u se
�- 10-
of t he tm-Jn. a s a. b ase b y a c onpc.ny o f a rtificers-tradesmen o f a ll
d escription 'l:lho s upplied t he c ontinental a rmy ¥ ri t h m ateriel - ·vragons,
t -arrels, c~sks . n ?.ils, h arnesses, a nd s hoes.
F olloHing t he P evolution, t he nc'lt-T n ation t eqc.n a. s ustained a nd
d etermined c rive t o f ree i tself froJ'rl i mported c roons. T he g rm-1th o f
F~erican i ndustrv -.;,Jas o ne o f t he f irst ·c oncerns o f t he c rovermnent.
J \lexa.nder E .?.Milton, S ecretary o f t he T reasury, c irected J ohn C hester
t o i nquire o n t he s tate o f i ndustry i n a ll o f t he v arious t ovms
l arge e nouqh t o m erit c oncern.
I nquiring i n D anbury, h e r eceived
r eplies f rom J oseph P . C ooke, s electman a nd PY.o rchant, a nd O liver
B urr, p rominent h atter.
I n t he e arly 1 790's, G overnor S amuel H untington o f C onnecticut
c ommissioned H illiaJ"l B lodgett t o I!l.ake a s urvey I'1.ap o f t he s tate
indicatin~ t he l ocation o f c hurches, r oads, m ills, f orges a nc
f actories.
~hese m~ps a re e xtremely i nstructive o n t he e conomy o f
e ighteenth c entury Dan~ury.
An a rerl \vhere Jl.J'1.cricans h oped t o a chieve s elf-sufficiEncy
i n t he p roduction O f i ron a nd i ron a rticles 1 e specially n ails •
C ooke, i n h is l etter t o C hester i n 17~1, n otes w ith s atisfaction t hat
t he p roduction o f D e.nbury a rea. b lacksmiths h ad w ade t he!!! i ndependent
o f i~port8d n ails.
\ •!aS
r :uring t he e ighteentl., c entury, L itchfield c ounty a nd a djacent
a reas i n r·~c>.ss?.chusetts c>.nd Net,! Y ork \ ..;ere t he l ec.d.ing s ourcE:s o f i ron
o re i n F .JTlerica. F orges a nd f urnaces a bounded.
S ettlement o f \•That
i s n ow B rookfield b eaan a round a n i ron w orks. A s ection o f t he t own
s till b ears t he "Iro~ w orks " a ppelation, a ttesting t o t he i nitial
i :rr.portance c f thE=: r esource t o t he c orarrmni t y. E drnunc a nd F.phr~im
N ashhcrn erect~d rtn i ron "t-mrks o n t he b anks o f t he S till R iver i n
1 788. I t c.ppears o n t!:1e m ap, h ut w as s hort-lived; i t b urned i n
!1.ay .- 1791. T he o wners s uspected a runa'l.-laY a pprentice o f s etting t he
b laze. C"ooke n otes i n h is l etter t o P amil t on, '1,'1ri t ten i n O ctober
t hc.t i ron p roduction \ 'l2.S " liable t o m any d isc:,sters" a nd " rE:quires
t he u nremitting e xertions o f t he P roprietors, a nd d 0nands p illJlic
e ncourageMent".!
T he s tory o f t he ' vash.borns d oes n ot e nd h ere.
I n 1 792 t he
b rothers p nrcha.S(?d a n ewly c onstructed p aper m ill i n B eaver B rook
f rom D avid ~:rood a.nd L azarus B ea.ch.
I n t his t ype o f p aper m ill,
l inen a nd c otton r ags, a long w ith a f ew m ore e xotic i tems l ike
c alves' ~e.rs <'lnd h ide f leshings, v .rere a llm·!ed t o d ecompose. T his
p rocess c ompleted, t hey N ere pOlL"lded h y w ater-po'\>:reref1. h ammers t o
c reate t~.e • ·stuff", o f "L~7hich peo.per 'Has rn .~de. T he r otting c re?..ted
a n o dious s tench ,,,hich m ade t he m ills u npopular. T he b r. ~ -:thers s ole.
t he B eaver P rook m ill t o S etr. C omstock i n 1 798 ~ · h ut r etr=dned o vmer ship o f a s econd p aper m ill i n M ill P lain. T his o ne v as 1 -ter b urned
b y l ocal r esidents u nhappy \ "lith t he s tench . md l ,J.i t h t he f looding '· -:r:
;
t hat t he ~ill darn c aused. C omstock c ontinued t o o perate t he B eaver
B rook r nill, o ften l ec.sing i t o ut, u ntil 1 821 H hen i t, t oo 1 ! .urned.
l ater
Da.I!'!.s h uil t o riqinally f or s awmills a nc. g ristmills \ 'Jere o ften
use~ a s t he s ite f or a s econe
m ill. S uch a c~se w as t he
�----------------------11-
linse e 0 o il I "'illf l ocn.teCI b ehind t he p res e nt d 2y E l D orado r estecurant.
B uilt i n 1 792, i t s hc.reO. a p ond ' lrTi t h a n a lrec..dy e xisting S""~7ffiill
o t.mec b y S amuel Y .Jildman. F le,x vras g ro'trm e xtensively a s c c a.sh
c rop b y loc~l f armers i n t he e ighteenth c entury.
I ts f iber w as
]'!lade i nt.o l inen c loth v hile t he l inseed o il f rom fl~xseec1 'VTas u sed
i n P ·" '.int em C. ? .s a \·m od p reservative.
T he t E.xtile i ndustry 'trlo.R a nother a rec. o f a ctivity i n e ighteenth
c entury De.n:t--ury. A t l ec.st t hree c o:mpanies s et o ut t o m anufacture
c loth ?.t t he h eqinning o f t he 1 790's. O ne ~_,,ras J ohn J oyce ;:md C ompc-.ny, '1.\lho ? .dvertised a s a "mc.nufactory~ o f l inen, c otton a nd ' 'rool
a nd ' VlaS l ocated o n Tm·m S treet n ear F ranklin. r ,nother c onpany " ras
f ormed i n 1 7 9 1 h y C omfort E oyt a nd T homas T ucker.
T ucker \ Jets a
w ell-to-no t ec.cheri a nd H oyt, a f armer, t hough h e o wned a sUI"lac
m ill i n t he S helter P ock c ..ren f or t he e xtraction o f r ed d ye.
C ooke
h ad h igh h opes f or t his c or1pany, \ •Jhich h ad p urchased a s pinning
j enny, a c arding m achine a nd a f ly s huttle. He n oted t hat ~they
h ave m .anufacturec s everal p ieces o f c loth H hich m eet ~'ri t h ~- ready
s ale; t he p rospect i s s ome't·lhc.t p romising . .• " 2 T he j enny 'tl!c.s a
c rank'lflheel o perated f rame v hich c ould s pin 8 t o 1 1 t hreads c t o nce.
No r ecords r emain o f t he c ompany. J udson W hite b egan m aking s addle
c loth i n 1 790 a nd c ontinued f or .~ fe'ltJ y ears, b ut 1 :-·ter t urned t c
h atting.
T he r easons f or t he s uccess o f h atting i n D anbury ~ere i ts
r elatively g ood r oads, i ts p roxirni t y to Ne\•' Y ork C ity, ~nd t he
p resence o f s killed H orknen. H hatever t he r easons, t he l c.st d ecade
o f t he eig~teE>nth c entury S~"~>! r.. b oom i n t he h atting t rade h ere.
F armers c::.nd t radesmen b e gan t o l eave t heir forJY~. er o ccupaticns a nd
s et u p s ma.ll h at s hops. 0 li v er B urr c md C ompany h egan h atting i n
1 787 P ith o ne 2 .pprentice a nd o ne j ourneyman. T ha.t y e2.r t hey t urned
o ut 5 51 ' h"".ts. B y 1 800 B urr <md C onpany e mployed 3 0 a nd exp<.."~rted
9 ,000 h ats.- alr..ost h alf o f D anbury 1 s t otal f or t he y ear.
B urr,
i n h is r eply t o C hester 1 c omplained, h owever, t hat t he p oor w orkmanship o f t he p roliferatin g nev.> h 0.tters \-!as d riving do-vm p rices
a nd d iscouraging a pprenticeship, a nd h e a sked f or g overnment s tandards
s imilc..r t o t hese e xisting h y l a\·7 i n E ngl?.nd.
T he s upply c f f urs
f or f elted h ats F as ? . p rohlem f or B urr s ince t hey r,Tere p urchased b y
a m an i n Ca.nad21., s hipped t o E ngland a nd t hen t o I:-le'!t-r Y ork b efore
g etting t o h im. W holesale c osts w ere c onsequently i ncreGsed c t
e ach j uncture.
B y t he t urn o f t he c entury, D anbury h ad a lready a cquired i ts
r eputation c.s t he h at m anufacturing c enter o f .r-.merica. n ewly
s uccessful h atters b egan t o a ppear i n t he g overnment a longside o f
t he n erch?nts, t he l arge f armers a nd t he m ore s uccessful c raftsmen.
***********
F ootnotes
1 P apers o f Z\lE~ xander H amilton, V ol. I X ( Colt:Lmhic U niversity P ress,
!·I • Y • ; 1 9 6 5 } p • 3 3 5 •
2 I bid.
�
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Vol. 03, num. 3, Clio - 1976
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1976
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THE BEGINNING OF INDUSTRY IN EIGHTEENTH CENTURY DANBURY
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Bill Devlin
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https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._39_num._1_Clio_-_2013/53/002_Billett_Introduction.pdf
7b1028c85198debabc8916764b0c10c0
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Introduction
Ted Billett
A man calls his wife from a cell phone, his voice quivering with emotion as he describes
his love for her and for his children. He works on the top floors of the World Trade Center. The
date is September 11, 2001.
The President steps to a podium in the mid-afternoon and sheds tears of sadness on
national television. He makes brief comment on events that unfolded in Newtown, Connecticut
earlier that day. The date is December 14, 2012.
Jackie Kennedy stands at the side of her husband's casket and though her face is hidden
behind a mourning veil, tears can be seen rolling off her cheeks. The date is November 25, 1963.
Human life is emotional. It is defined by subjective internal emotional states and those states are,
in turn, realized within social contexts. The internal worlds of human beings are shaped by the
ebb and flow of emotion. Anger, love, disdain, fear, elation: each of these emotions, and this list
is by no means inclusive, has a role in propelling or inhibiting the human being along life's path.
But is emotion fair game for the historian? This loaded question has only very recently been
settled. An even cursory review of the current state of the historians' field turns up a fastproliferating literature concerned with the history of emotion, though, as Dr. Marcy May points
out, the subject is not devoid of conceptual disagreements. It is no small indication that the
innovative and pioneering Max Planck Institute for Human Development in Berlin now includes
among its eighty associations the new Research Center for the History of Emotion. Ute Frevert,
former Professor of German History at Yale University, is the first and current head of the
Center, having taken up the mantel in 2008. She has offered a compelling justification for the
role of emotion in historical inquiry: "Our research rests on the assumption that emotions –
�feelings and their expressions – are shaped by culture and learnt/acquired in social contexts.
What somebody can and may feel (and show) in a given situation, towards certain people or
things, depends on social norms and rules. It is thus historically variable and open to change."1
Emotions are complicated and temporally capricious. They vary over time and space,
and they exist both within the individual and in the society at large. Yet the variability of
emotion is one very good reason, according to historians Carol Z. and Peter N. Stearns, why their
incorporation into social history is no less than revelatory. Nearly thirty years ago the Stearns
noted that "the study of emotion may become one of the hot new topics in social history"
because of its ability to shed new light on social, political, and economic changes through an
interdisciplinary understanding of emotion as a driver of those shifts.2 Just as the burgeoning of
women's history si new avenues of research, so the history of emotion has and will continue to
present the historian with untrammeled realms of inquiry.
Historians are not a detached set, for all their bookish and ascetic qualities. They are
social participants, members of human communities, emotionally tied-in to the collective. And
historians bear great responsibility in that they must attempt to record and interpret the emotions
of others, of persons separated by time and space and all else that alters unknowably in the
continuum.
Peter N. Stearns and Carol Z. Stearns, "Emotionology: Clarifying the History of Emotions and
Emotional Standards," American Historical Review 90 (1985): 813-836.
1
Max Planck Institute for Human Development, "History of Emotions." Accessed March 13, 2013,
http://www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/en/research/history-of-emotions.
2
Peter N. Stearns and Carol Z. Stearns, "Emotionology: Clarifying the History of Emotions and Emotional
Standards," American Historical Review 90 (1985): 813-836.
�
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Vol. 39, num. 1, Clio - 2013
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
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Title
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Introduction
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2 pgs
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Billett, Theodore
Publisher
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Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
Date
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2013-05
Clio
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https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._39_num._1_Clio_-_2013/60/009_Billett_-_Elliot_Roosevelt.pdf
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Elliott Roosevelt: A Paradoxical Personality in an Age of Extremes
Theodore M. Billett
Elliott Roosevelt, the enigmatic younger brother of U.S. President Theodore
Roosevelt, is a compelling study in contradiction. Though several of Elliott’s closest
family members—from his brother to his daughter, Eleanor—became important figures
on the national stage in twentieth century America, he has largely been forgotten. The
reasons historians overlook Elliott, including his obscurity and the calamitousness of his
lifetime, are not unlike the motives that drove his family to similar reticence. Yet, a
deeper and more nuanced treatment of Elliott reveals much about late nineteenth century
America and about a complicated personality with intrinsic connections to important
historical actors. Like the Civil War of his childhood and the Gilded Age in which he
lived, Elliott’s life presents a complicated, often paradoxical existence. Born to a family
dissevered by the Civil War, raised in aristocratic society but financially inept, devoted to
social welfare causes but engaged in a life of frivolity and ostentation, praised for his
likeability but disdained for his selfishness, raised on notions of temperance and morality
but remembered for his intractable drinking and debauchery, Elliott resists simplistic,
unifying definitions.
Unable to tease apart the bifurcated nature of Elliott’s life, a more effective
picture of his character can be presented by wading into the mire of his contrasts.
Significant representations of Elliott’s duplicitous reality and his conflicting conduct can
be seen throughout his life. His household and family were wrenched by the Civil War.
He was committed to helping the unfortunate and needy, but lived the life of Gilded Age
boulevardier. While he was born into great wealth, he was so unsuccessful at managing
1
�his own finances that Theodore would eventually request control of his estate. His
church-going father and his presidency-bound brother were models of self-control, yet
Elliott would blossom into an obdurate and self-destructive alcoholic. He showed great
care and affection as a father, while simultaneously living a life of infidelity, even
fathering a child with one of the family’s housemaids.1 Elliott not only crossed social
boundaries, he overshot geographical constrictions with travels to the frontier-era western
states and to the distant subcontinent of India. Extremes, divisions, and hypocrisies seem
the hallmarks of Elliott’s span, creating a tumultuous trajectory that his daughter,
Eleanor, once described, in a tone of resignation, as “tragedy and happiness…walking on
each other’s heels.”2
The grandson of one of Manhattan’s “Wealthiest Ten,” Elliott was born in 1860 to
a notably privileged New York household.3 His own father, Theodore Sr., while not
expanding on the several-million-dollar fortune, nevertheless provided a moneyed
upbringing for Elliott and his siblings. Elliott recognized the fact by at least fourteen,
writing to his father, “I don’t believe there is any boy that has had as happy and care free
of a life as I have had.”4 Being raised in an advantaged, urban household in the 1860s
may have been “care free” at times, but there were uniquely grave realities that connected
nearly every family to the nation’s fratricidal Civil War. For Elliott, a divided house,
reflective of a fissured nation, was early on an unavoidable reality: his mother and her
1
Kathleen Dalton, Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life (New York: Vintage Books,
2002), 140.
2
Eleanor Roosevelt, This Is My Story (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1937), 5.
3
David McCullough, Mornings on Horseback: the Story of an Extraordinary Family, a
Vanished Way of Life, and the Unique Child Who Became Theodore Roosevelt (New
York: Simon and Schuster, 2001), 27.
4
McCullough, 147.
2
�family were active Confederate sympathizers, while his father and his kin were staunch
Unionist.
The Civil War was by design an internecine conflict, and the divisions that were
playing out on battlefields had their counterparts in family circles.5 The Roosevelt
household was particularly strained as a result of unharmonious maternal and paternal
allegiances. Elliott’s mother, Mittie Bulloch Roosevelt, raised in a patrician household in
antebellum Georgia, was an ardent supporter of the Confederacy.6 Conversely,
Theodore, Sr. threw himself wholly into efforts to support the Union cause, leaving home
from 1861 to 1863 to lobby in Washington for an Allotment Commission allowing
northern soldiers to send a portion of their pay home to their families.7 He was an active
member in the Union League Club and in the Loyal Publication Society, Union-loyalist
associations attended by New York’s upper class.8 A vocal abolitionist Republican,
Theodore, Sr. became remarkably intimate with President Lincoln, exchanging letters and
spending time with him in D.C.9 Theodore, Sr. would have fought for the Union cause,
but his wife had begged him to abjure on the grounds that “it would kill her for him to
fight against her brothers,” as the oldest of Elliott’s siblings, Bamie, recounted.10
Elliott’s parents were resigned to opposition in no small part because Mittie
situated her identity in her Southern familial heritage. The Bulloch’s were proud
5
Damon Eubank, In the Shadow of the Patriarch: The John J. Crittenden Family in War
and Peace (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 2009). Eubank’s study provides an
example of torn family allegiances during the Civil War.
6
H.W. Brands, T.R.: The Last Romantic (New York: Basic Books, 1997),17. Brands
states, “Upon the outbreak of the war, a psychological fault line opened, running right
through the center of the house.”
7
McCullough, 58.
8
Dalton, 28.
9
McCullough, 59-60.
10
Dalton, 26.
3
�descendents of Georgia’s first “ ‘Revolutionary’ Governor,” Archibald Bulloch. Mittie’s
brothers, James D. and Irvine Bulloch, and her half-brother Daniel Elliott, were
committed Confederates and, with the exception of Daniel, would be forced to remove to
England at the close of the war due to their acknowledged participation in the secessionist
cause.11 During the war, James was something of a Confederate hero; he had acted as
“one of Jefferson Davis’ secret agents” to England, successfully commissioning the
construction of the rebel warship Alabama in Liverpool.12
Mittie’s consanguineous connections to the South led to open displays of loyalty;
following one southern victory, remarks historian Joseph Lash, Mittie produced a
Confederate flag, and hung it from their East Twentieth Street home.13 The display was
an irreverent and dangerous act, one that had landed others in prison.14 Mittie’s mother,
Grandma Bulloch, spent the war years with Elliott and his siblings in the house in New
York, and helped to “finance hospital supplies” for the Confederacy by selling family
silver.15
Mittie’s opposition to the Union, and her devotion to the South, did not go
unrecognized by her children. A favorite game among Elliott and his siblings during the
war years had been “run the blockade,” derived from knowledge of their rebel Uncle
James Bulloch’s daring transportation of “cargo of contraband goods” through Union
naval blockades.16 Mittie and her husband struggled to find common ground during the
war years. Evidencing a relationship placed under strain by internecine division,
11
Joseph P. Lash, Eleanor and Franklin: The Story of their Relationship Based On
Eleanor’s Private Papers (New York: W.W. Norton, 1971), 5.
12
Dalton, 30.
13
Lash, 5.
14
Dalton, 29.
15
Ibid., 31.
16
McCullough, 55-57.
4
�Theodore wrote his wife from Washington, “I wish we sympathized together on this
question of so vital moment in our country, but I know you cannot understand my
feelings.”17
Elliott, young as he was, witnessed confusing displays, or, in his younger sister
Corinne’s revealing recollection, “much that was difficult and troublous.”18 A halfcentury later, Elliott’s brother, Theodore, would write in his autobiography that “towards
the end of the Civil War, although a very small boy, I grew to have a partial but alert
understanding of the fact that the family were not one in their views about that conflict.”19
Elliott, too, must have internalized the schizophrenic war allegiances that mingled in the
Roosevelt house. The conflicted couple introduced their children to a world that was
neither blue nor gray, but was instead an uncomfortable amalgam of the two, a disunited
coalition of North and South, a house both slavocratic and abolitionist. On the subject of
slavery, the Roosevelt couple was clearly conflicted; Theodore, Sr., described by a
contemporary with the maxim “firm against slavery,” could not reconcile with Mittie’s
unyielding support for the South’s peculiar institution.20 She simply could not break from
her Southern family’s dogmatic belief that slavery was justified and justifiable. Mittie’s
father had, in fact, been a close friend of Alexander Stephens, the outspoken Vice
President of the Confederacy, who asserted in no uncertain terms “the great truth that the
negro is not equal to the white man.”21 The conflicting views of Roosevelt-Bulloch
17
Ibid., 62.
Dalton, 26.
19
Theodore Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography (New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 11. Italics not in original text.
20
McCullough, 48.
21
Fordham University, “Alexander H. Stephens’ Cornerstone Address, March 21, 1861,"
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1861stephens.asp.
18
5
�couple, a response to overwhelming social and culture disunity, introduced Elliott to an
anomalous reality.
Another of Elliott’s southern descendents, Uncle Daniel Elliott, died during the
war.22 The departure of Elliott’s namesake was a solemn reminder that those family
members so regularly depicted in Mittie’s stories to her children were engaged in a lifeand-limb rebellion against the forces of national cohesion. News of Uncle Daniel’s death
would have elicited a strange intermingling of sympathy and disdain if the children
managed to connect him to their mother’s brutal tale of his having murdered his personal
slave “in a fit of rage.”23 Uncle Elliott was the embodiment of ambiguity: a violent
authoritarian and supposed murderer who was simultaneously the object of the Bulloch
women’s worries and affections.
The existential discord and contradicting personalities Elliott experienced in his
first half-decade of life continued beyond the war. Over the long term, Elliott maintained
an affectionate and lasting connection with his surviving Confederate uncles, especially
James D. Bulloch. Though James lived the remainder of his life in Liverpool, England,
his closeness with Elliott is evident in their correspondence. When Elliott was in the
propositional phase of his courtship of the blue-blooded beauty he would eventually
marry, Miss Anna Hall, he solicited a letter from James that exhibited a profound
connection with his southern relative. James’ letter, written twenty years after the war,
showed the persisting avuncular bond: “I, the near relative and friend [of Elliott]…having
often seen him in childhood and in all the stages of approach to his present condition…do
declare, that the said Elliott Roosevelt is a proper young man, and has always been
22
23
6
Dalton, 33.
Ibid., 34.
�dutiful as a son, tender as a brother, affectionate as a nephew, true and loyal as a
friend…”24 Elliott’s allegiance to his Confederate relations ran deep and, as historian
Joseph Lash has suggested, probably encouraged both him and his brother to be
“sympathetic with the restoration of white rule in the South,” and to accept the glaring
failure of Reconstruction to improve race relations.25
Elliott likely first met his Bulloch uncle when the man came to New York in 1865
or 1866, not long after the war’s conclusion.26 Still being sought by Federal authorities,
James traveled under an assumed name, a practice Elliott himself would resort to in his
own later, troubled years, when detection, even by family members, was unwelcome.27
With a deep abiding love for a man who, as Elliott knew, had illicitly delivered what may
have been the Confederacy’s largest wartime arms shipment, Elliott would have
understood that loyalty was complicated.28 That James Bulloch could be “one of the best
men I have ever known,” as Elliott’s brother described the veteran, and could also be an
agent of antisocial causes and outright martial rebellion was a Gordian conflict.29
The fissures of the Civil War years eventually gave way to the paradoxes and
paroxysms of the post-bellum period. The Gilded Age, Mark Twain’s enduring
appellation for the era 1870-1900, was coined before the end of the period it intended to
reference. Twain’s pithy designation is, therefore, freed from questions that might arise
about applying a term in retrospective inquiry or historical analysis; it is a
24
Elliott Roosevelt, Hunting Big Game in the Eighties: The Letters of Elliott Roosevelt
Sportsman, ed. Eleanor Roosevelt (New York: Scribner’s Sons, 1933), 147-148.
25
Lash, 27.
26
Theodore Roosevelt, 12.
27
For Uncle Bulloch’s clandestine visit see Theodore Roosevelt, 12. For Elliott’s
assuming a false identity, see McCullough, 369 and Lash, 52.
28
McCullough, 55-56.
29
Theodore Roosevelt, 13.
7
�contemporaneous phrase. Twain invoked the aphorism as the title for his co-authored
1873 novel of the same name about the corrupting material excesses of the period, and he
intended it to be a comment on the glaring social, economic, and political disparities of
the time.30 He was determined to show, as historian Rebecca Edwards said, “that
America glittered on the outside while it rotted at the core.”31 Ambivalence and socioeconomic disparity reigned, especially in the large American cities like New York.
Elliott’s reality was a United States that “combined modern technology with race hatred,
eager consumerism with grinding poverty, greed with good will, humanitarian impulses
with designs for economic empire.”32 Conflict and disparity were the defining elements of
the period, just as conflicting and paradoxical actions were the signature elements of
Elliott’s person.
The references to concomitant “greed and good will” and hypocritical
“humanitarian impulses” can be directly applied to Elliott Roosevelt’s existence. He
wore the dual-hat of selflessness and selfishness. As a young man, Elliott’s New York
was one of conspicuous socio-economic disparity. His own family home, a Victorian
architectural showpiece, was not far from the “squatter’s shanties” that had sprung up on
Manhattan’s West Side.33 A Chinese diplomat who visited New York in the period of
Elliott’s upbringing invoked a classical poem to describe the scene: “Crimson mansions
reek of wine and meat, while on the road lie frozen bones. Rich and poor but a foot
30
Sean Dennis Cashman, America in the Gilded Age (New York: New York University
Press, 1988), 4-5.
31
Rebecca Edwards, New Spirits: American in the Gilded Age, 1865-1905 (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2006), 4.
32
Ibid., 6.
33
Lash, 5.
8
�apart; sorrows too hard to relate.”34 It was estimated that as many as twenty thousand
homeless boys roamed the streets of New York in the 1870s and 80s.35 While still just a
boy himself, Elliott registered the human disparity, and responded to the economic
imbalance with simple attempts at redistribution. Here was Elliott’s humanitarian,
affectionate aspect. One remarkable act of compassion occurred on a cold winter
morning, when a seven-year-old Elliott came upon a ragged child in the street and, in an
effort to correct the circumstance, gave his new coat to the unfortunate youth. When
Elliott returned to the Roosevelt’s stately home he was asked where his coat had gone,
and he proudly recounted his corrective action.36
Elliott’s precocious humanitarianism reflected his father’s devotion to the
disenfranchised residents of the city. For Theodore, Sr., “philanthropy and civic
enterprise” came before business interests; humanistic causes were Sr.’s focus, and he
played an active role in founding the charitable Orthopedic Hospital, aggressively funded
the Newsboys’ Lodging House, befriended the great social reformers of his era like
Charles Loring Brace, and offered a Mission Class for impoverished young men.37 One
acquaintance of the elder Roosevelt pointed to his being unique among New York’s
moneyed circles in his interest in the poor: “At a time when most citizens of equal
fortune and education” neglected to assist the less fortunate, Sr. “was always engaged” in
philanthropic enterprise.38 Elliott accompanied his father, even as a boy, to the
Newsboys’ Lodging House, an influential tradition he would continue to act on for many
34
Edwards, 100.
McCullough, 28.
36
Elliott Roosevelt, ix.
37
Lash, 5.
38
Ibid., 5.
35
9
�years, taking up the mantel after his father’s death.39 In the late 1880s, Elliott’s own
daughter, Eleanor, accompanied him on trips to the same Lodging House. Eleanor, a
future champion of social welfare, claimed that one of her earliest memories, probably in
the late 1880s, was of her father taking her to a Christmas dinner for the newsboys.40
Throughout the 1880s, Elliott made his altruistic presence felt by New York’s
poorest residents. If, as Henry George had written in his Paradox of Capitalist Growth,
“the association of poverty with progress” was “the great enigma” of the era, Elliott
sought to provide some answer to the question of economic inequality with his own
personal acts of charity.41 The “great enigma” did not go unrecognized by Elliott, but
was, instead, made a lasting part of his reality by his constant devotion to philanthropic
action. The New York Times carried an article in the spring of 1885 describing “the
kindness of Mr. Elliott Roosevelt.”42 Elliott and his wife furnished a turkey dinner for the
West Side Boys’ Lodging House, another of the charitable institutions Sr. had originally
been familiar with. The boys “ate until their clothes didn’t fit,” and then Elliott offered
some encouraging remarks. The article closed by praising the Roosevelt couple as
“among those who make the boys happy.” The Times again recognized Elliott’s
charitable nature in December 1886 in an article aptly titled “Making Many Happy: Good
Dinners for the Poor and Those in Prison.”43 The article began:
At the West Side Newsboys’ Lodging House, No. 400
Seventh-avenue, the 120 inmates had their Christmas
dinner…It was furnished by Elliott Roosevelt, brother
39
McCullough, 247.
Eleanor Roosevelt, 27.
41
Leon Fink, Major Problems in the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (Lexington, MA:
D.C. Heath and Company, 1993), 6.
42
“Boys With Significant Names,” New York Times, April, 30, 1885.
43
“Making Many Happy,” New York Times, December 26, 1886.
40
10
�of Theodore, and a few of his friends. These gentlemen,
attired in full dress, served the boys before going home
to their own dinners.
Along with the meal, Elliott paid for “all-wool flannel shirts” to be distributed among the
boys. Elliott had taken it upon himself to act as more than a distant fiduciary benefactor
to the newsboys: he was a physical presence in the lives of these least fortunate young
citizens. He had to enter the sphere of the impoverished children, as his father had. He
had to embrace the enigmatic disparity Henry George had indicated.
Elliott carried this charitableness with him even during the gravest periods of his
life. During his tragic final years, 1892 to his death in 1894, Elliott was forced by his
brother to accept a temporary exile in Abingdon, Virginia.44 After Elliott’s death, the
Richmond Times Dispatch published an account of the “charming gentleman” who had
spent his final years in the vicinity.45 The account described Elliott’s charitable nature as
a defining feature of his presence: “he had an almost uncanny knack of learning about
cases of sickness and distress around him and a way of quietly sending money, or
delicacies, or flowers, or words of comfort and cheer as the occasion required. At
Christmas he would buy hundreds of turkeys from the farmers and have them distributed
to the poor.” Elliott, whose life was, in the reporter’s estimation, “a daily practice of the
golden rule,” harbored the philanthropic impulses of his father, the celebrated social
reformer whose own obituaries had called him a “generous public spirit,” a devotee of
“high moral purpose.”46 Despite his apparent devotion to others, his record of giving to
44
Blanche Wiesen Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt, Volume One, 1884-1933 (New York:
Viking Penguin, 1992), 73.
45
Goodridge Wilson, “When a Roosevelt Found Health in Virginia Hills,”
http://richmondthenandnow.com/Newspaper-Articles/Elliott-Roosevelt.html.
46
McCullough, 185.
11
�the needy, Elliott was simultaneously inclined to an “epicurean” existence, a word
Theodore used to describe his brother’s questionable behavior.47
It was his father, once again, who introduced him to the duplicity of feeding the
poor on one evening and, on the next, sitting down to a multi-course meal that was
prepared and served by domestic workers. McCullough, in his close study of the elder
Roosevelt, described him as “one who could work for the welfare of others without being
an acsetic.”48 Sr. combined his charity work with his love of high-class living. A striking
example of his periodically uncomfortable amalgamation of prosperity and poverty
occurred when he hosted a fundraiser for the Orthopedic Hospital at his opulent 57th
Street home. In the dining room, perched atop a large, undoubtedly expensive table, Sr.
placed “several pathetically crippled children” in order to solicit the donations of his
party-goers.49 The scene must have been shocking in its duplicity; the city’s wealthiest
men and women, like Mrs. John Jacob Astor, who was apparently moved by the
spectacle, stood in the ornate dining space of the Roosevelt’s uptown mansion while on
the table sat several crippled children who doubtlessly came from the city’s poorest
quarters.
Edwards noted the “greed” that countervailed the better impulses of the Gilded
Age personality, and though Elliott was more inclined to spending than saving, he was
certainly familiar with the lifestyle of New York’s haute monde. Although he was
committed to philanthropy, he lived like an English aristocrat, “riding to the hounds” at
his estate in Hempstead, playing polo at the Meadowbrook Club in Long Island, traveling
47
Lash, 11.
McCullough, 138.
49
Ibid., 138.
48
12
�to the garish estates in Newport, Rhode Island during summers.50 In his final years,
Elliott took to writing and produced a thinly veiled depiction of his egotistical,
unproductive life among the well to do. His story’s protagonist--Sophie Vedder-- admits,
in a reflective moment, “life has been a gamble. I have lived for pleasure only. I have
never done anything I disliked when I could possibly avoid it.”51 The character continues
to offer explanatory aphorisms; “live and let live”; “never miss an opportunity of
enjoying life, no matter at what cost.” Indeed, Elliott was guilty of neglecting his moral
and fiduciary responsibilities. Edith Carow Roosevelt, the wife of Theodore,
remembered Elliott with unflattering clarity. “He drank like a fish,” she said, “and ran
after ladies. I mean ladies not in his own rank, which was much worse.”52
After Elliott married Anna Hall, “one of New York’s most beautiful women,” he
spent increasing amounts of time in the pursuit of expensive pleasures. According to
researcher Mason White, the couple were “prominent members of New York society and
were invited to dinners, dances, or theater parties nearly every night.”53 In the immediate
aftermath of Elliott’s tragic end, the New York World paid tribute to him as one of the
great, but forgotten, bons vivants of the age: “There was a time when there were not
many more popular young persons in society than Mr. and Mrs. Elliott Roosevelt.”54
When the couple had been married in 1883, the event was hailed in the New York Times
as “one of the most brilliant weddings of the season.”55 The Times reporter struggled to
50
Cook, 46.
McCullough, 248.
52
Ibid., 247.
53
Mason White, “Elliott, the Tragic Roosevelt,” The Hudson Valley Regional Review 5
(1988): 22.
54
“Elliott Roosevelt Dead,” New York World, August 16, 1894.
55
“The Roosevelt-Hall Wedding,” New York Times, December 2, 1883.
51
13
�convey the unmatched expense of the event with depictions of the attendees’ garish
outfits and the costly decorations like “banisters trimmed with fern and ivy.” The guest
list alone placed Elliott among the Nation’s stratospherically wealthy; listed were Astors,
Vanderbilts, Bigelows, and Livingstons.
There was a vast gulf between “Elliott the sportsman extraordinaire” and “Elliott
the philanthropist.” Each time Elliott ventured to go from one extreme to the next, it was
like crossing an invisible dividing line in society. Henry George’s “paradox” of the
Gilded Age may have been defining an existential disparity, but it neglected to illustrate
that individual men like Elliott were enigmatically to be found in both realities. All the
going-back-and-forth, from offering support for the needy on one evening to partying
uncontrollably on the following one, eventually seemed to rend Elliott’s internal world.
He lost the ability to retain control of his mental state, becoming an unpredictable, Janusfaced character to those closest to him.56 Theodore, an aspiring politician in the 1880s,
was disgusted with his brother’s “frivolous” living and did not doubt that the devotion to
ostentation was exacting a toll on Elliott. In a letter to their sister Bamie in 1888
Theodore was brutally honest about Elliott’s undisciplined existence, specifically
referring to the drinking and gaming conducted at his new home on Long Island: “I do
hate his Hempstead life. I don’t know whether he could get along without the excitement
now, but it is certainly very unhealthy, and leads to nothing.”57 Elliott’s life appeared
frivolous in other ways, as well: he lavishly spent money, but never succeeded in a single
financial venture.
56
57
Cook, 58.
Ibid., 50.
14
�This fact, that Elliott failed to profit even as those around him, like the
Vanderbilts, for example, were acquiring immense fortunes by investing in industries like
railroads, mining, and manufacturing, is almost too strange to measure.58 Theodore, for
his part, had chosen politics even before he was finished with college.59 But that Elliott
should have been unable to find some means of gain was probably the result of thinking
like that of his imagined protagonist Sophie Vedder. In the Vedder story there is a direct
reference to financial hardship, alluding to Elliott’s own stress: “wondering how long
one’s funds are going to last, takes the edge off of every pleasure in life.”60 Perhaps he
was simply spoiled by his affluent upbringing. After all, the generations previous were
historically successful, even if the fortune had waned. While Elliott’s father had
inherited two million dollars, Elliott’s inheritance was a comparatively meager
$125,000.61
Elliott’s forebears had been a tightfisted and frugal set, furiously driven to balance
their personal accounts in the direction of profit. Cornelius Van Schaak Roosevelt,
grandfather to Elliott, assured his future wife that “Economy is my doctrine at all times,
at all events till I become, if it be so, a man of fortune.”62 Van Schaak went on to cofound the Chemical Bank of New York, one of few banks to survive the Civil War, and
would make millions in plate glass importation. Elliott’s father, while not driven to great
business ends, was equally attentive to the balance of income and expenditure. Theodore,
Sr. once offered his namesake advice about his secret for maintaining financial stability:
58
Ray Ginger, Age of Excess: The United States from 1877 to 1914 (New York:
Macmillan Company, 1965), 93.
59
McCullough, 208.
60
Cook, 74.
61
McCullough, 205.
62
Ibid., 24.
15
�“keep the fraction constant.” The fraction, of course, was income-over-outlays, and Sr.
seems to have been true to his own aphorism. McCullough reports that despite an
“extravagant” lifestyle, Theodore Roosevelt Sr. was more than just solvent.63
Elliott often admitted to “laziness.” In a letter written to Bamie from the
antipodes of Asia, Elliott, just into his twenties, seemed to suggest a reason for his
inaction. Explaining why he had gone to India, he wrote
There seemed little for me to do in New York that
any of you, my own people, could be proud of me for,
and naturally I am a pretty lazy fellow…If some of the
wise and strong among you don’t make a good chance
for me on my coming home I’ll make but a poor one
for myself I fear.64
Here Elliott’s laziness seems a self-deprecating cover for another issue altogether. Elliott
had always been economically reliant on others, and now, despite his having reached
adulthood, others, “the wise and the strong,” would determine whether or not he found a
profitable enterprise. Lash suggests that this learned entitlement, absorbed in his
younger years, combined with the “strong pull” of the social environment, had prevented
Elliott from finding success in the business world.65
It may, in fact, have been a fantastically ruinous investment that portended
Elliott’s physical death. Surely, Elliott’s peculiar end followed other devastating
personal tragedies, including his wife’s death from diphtheria, followed by that of his
son, Elliott. But the financial disaster he suffered in 1893 was a true blow to his waning
optimism. The Panic of 1893, a widespread economic depression, caused the failure of
63
McCullough, 206.
Lash, 13.
65
Lash, 10.
64
16
�Elliott’s banking and mining interests in Abingdon, Virginia. Abingdon reporter
Goodridge Wilson described the downturn as a paralyzing force, and noted Elliott’s
desperate but finally failing attempts to raise investment capital.66
In a letter written only days after Elliott’s death, Theodore acknowledged his
brother’s enigmatic and impenetrable two-facedness: “I suppose he has been doomed
from the beginning; the absolute contradiction of all his actions, and of all his moral even
more than his mental qualities, is utterly impossible to explain.”67 Theodore saw with
cold clarity the troubled inconsistencies in Elliott’s life. Most shocking for the aspiring
politician were the moral ambiguities that seemed to cling to Elliott. Later in his writing,
Theodore called Elliott’s life “strange,” which seemed an admission of Theodore’s
inability to understand the tensions that had pulled his brother apart. Whether he was
speaking of his deceased brother’s infidelity and alcoholism, or he was groping for a
recollection of Elliott’s better qualities when he wrote about moral “contradiction,”
Theodore was more content to remember the family myth surrounding Elliott’s “old,
generous, gallant self,” even if, or perhaps especially because, the notion of a Elliott as a
singular character, uniformly good or bad, was hard to comprehend.
The paradoxes of Elliott’s character, the gulf between his likeability and his
selfishness, became most apparent in his relationships with his wife and his daughter,
Eleanor. In part, his incongruousness was the result of something heretofore unexplored;
namely, Elliott’s alcoholism. While his brother seemed to get “fighty” when he drank, as
the future President once admitted, Elliott was prone to bouts of maudlin contemplation
that gave way to great spasms of exuberance. Most present-day historians that confront
66
67
Wilson, “When a Roosevelt Found Health in Virginia Hills”.
Cook, 89.
17
�Elliott’s drinking place it at the center of his personal failure and ultimate ruin. Lash’s
chapter on Elliott’s final years, titled “The Crack Up,” described a capricious alcoholic,
traveling abroad at great expense to half-heartedly attempt sobriety.68 Historian B.W.
Cook concluded that Elliott was, by the late 1880s, “increasingly mercurial” as a result of
his “excessive” consumption of alcohol.69
Even in death, Elliott was physically indecisive, restless for upheaval. The
Roosevelts would initially have him buried in their family plot at Greenwood, but after
his wife’s family asked that he be laid with his marriage partner and son in Tivoli, his
body was exhumed and driven north, following the treed watercourse of the Hudson.70
68
Lash, 34-35.
Cook, 37.
70
Cook, 91-92.
69
18
�Elliott Roosevelt with Elliot, Jr., Anna Eleanor, and Hall
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elliott_Roosevelt_and_Children.jpg
Theodore and Elliott Roosevelt
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-OUILuhErA7w/UFQkEpIG4eI/AAAAAAAAAj8/GdYyxKD6qY/s640/Roosevelts.jpg
19
�
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Elliott Roosevelt: A Paradoxical Personality in an Age of Extremes
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Billett, Theodore
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Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
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Clio
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https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._02_num._1_Clio_-_1974/41/3_4.pdf
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[ 'l1e]
I f p n i tem V,IPS
dcterm~ . 11E"0 .
f Cf'r o f p rosC'cution.
I f n ot,
nl?V'lsCle21l?rs y.l('rr 8 0 n otifi("(1 pnc:1
f 'nyonE' 8 1?11ing t hc c oncJenmco b ook o r m E'gpzine f 'fter f orty-eight
h our 2 hE'd C'lE'psE'd \"IPfl 1 ipble t o p rosccution i ni t iE'trd b y t he W F'tch
p nd WE're] S ocicty.
I n M£1rch o f 1 926 C hpse· d rcl1"rl?d t h1"t t he A pril i ssu(' o f t hc
Am('_;t:.tc. f'..l1}1l('}::,c_~:rX
\I"('S t iobj('ctionpble.
tI
C hp 8 (, h f'o b ("en V"f'i t ing f or
I;>n ("xC,\.lSC t o E 'tt2ck t hF ~1~I_9..u.r..Y £1ne] choPE' fin E 'rticlC' b y H crbc r t
A sbury, n HptrE'ck, ,; E'n P CCoilllt o f ( I p rostitute V s f~orry l ift=' i n ( I
flmE"ll t orm i n r urE"l l 'fIip,souri,
£1£..:r..9.'LlriL hEld-
~'lr('E'uy
p~~
the:- pretext f or hi[-: f Iction.
p rinte:-d t hree:- £11"'ticle:-8 t hE't V"ere d irectly- of-
fC:llSivf', i f r iot i npultinr;, t o thE"
rtkthodif~t
r e:-ligion, t o t he' W£1tch
E'no WE'ro S ociety, t o ChE's(' h imsFlf, p nd t o t hc C 'ntirC'
nl'..' nity •
ThE'
. T he f irst,· tI Ar8(>l1pls o f H c"tr('d i
r:
[,ccuf~ E'd
BOf.-~ton
c om...
r <:ligious f unc1p-·
m entE'lism i n g enfrpl E'nd U ethodism i n p prticu1E'r, o f c ncourpging
[ 'nt:i-socipl p ttitudes E"mong t heir f ollovl'crs.
nlE'gc ' z inc p rinte-d p n E "rrlirr A sbury f 'rticl.t=',
A fC'vII m onths l ptc-r tht='
t:U) f rom I .kthooisn1,
n
p
j ;lcmoir o f £1 r .Iethoc'ist c hildhood, t hpt ]1.po l eft h im t tfull o f c ontempt
f or t he c hurch, f'ncl d isgust f or th<: f orm.s o f r eligion. n6,
ThC'P('
V.1Cl'(' f ol10\,lcd b y . .:\.L.S. W oodvs t 'KC:'eping thc- Puritpnf." P ur(",tr F.'n e xpose o f t he W ptch f 'no W prd' s c E'nsorship mC'tb_
ods. 7
The' f inpl i nf.·1 ult
Vllp8 C ht'rlC's A ngof'f's v icioU8 . :'SSf'Y, t'Bof-!ton T \'7ilic;ht.n
C
o t='8crib("u Bop-c.on
( If:1
o nc(' t he A thens o f
" louts, f t'k('s, pncl roguE"f1,tt
\~Iith
Am e ricF'~
f \.nc;off
nOVII ovc--rrUJ.'l b y
p p opulpce t oo i llitE'rptc t o
8tE'nO o r p pprcciptC:' t he l itC'rpture o f E' T heodore D rirsl?r o r
U IHJO:'-
J E'mrs
Bn'~1ch C pbcll ( E"'llthorf! o f b ooks DPni1 E' a i n no~~ton)? f ine v':i.th t: pn
E"
�- 16orgE"nizE"tion o f s mut h ounds • •• Vllho 8r<? t o i t t hF't B oston i s k ept i n
t he g uttC'r. ( i
A ngoff f urther E "ffronted th<? c i t y b y c E'lling i t th<?
rtgF'rbE"ge c rn o f A nl0'ric2n j ournplism 9 ( ; 2 no d C'scribing i ts r E'ligious
E'-c. m0f1 1Jhcre ( 's C lfoul V "ith t he b p,Mling o f F undF'mcntF'list:s, the-oGo,,;,
p hists, m etpjJl1yr!icpl h rE"lers F'l1d o ther s uch
i_~i.tQ
l k t h(,l1 r ipped
q Uf-'Ckf4 .(;
\;r12ny rCF'f\OnS h1"vc bC'f'l1 g iven f or t he c ollE'spE' o f
t he I rif\h.
p,::"1tOll c uI t un?, (; f 'ne], c ontinued A ngoff, I lpn o bvious r('p~~on i s thC'
:i 1} w'sion o f t hc t ovm b y s uch i nunigr2nt m orons.
L ugh 0 v Briel1
H lf'yOT
i n l UC4 -
c;
T he I riph ( 'l('c-(.eo
(;Bof' ton c li('o t hF't d E'y,;: w rote' A ngoff,
F'ncl t :the R ('nF'if'1 8E'nCe o f B oston w ill n ot t rkc p 12cc u ntil t hrsE' b E'rn
b E' r i E 'llS [" r e C' x t (' r minc' t ea
u
0
;;
T he g r.ncrf'l [ 'lcorn t h2t l!
i('nc1;:e11 2 no h iG lTIF'gE' z inc c ontinuously
d irC'ctE'o f 't t he VF'luC'f1 t h2t m ost il.m('ricE'11G [ 1till c hcrif:lhcd, l1l2ck h im
p jJrim2:L'Y t prcet f or
t~1C
n Puri tr'nr-: t1 o f t he' 1 020 0 8, [ 'nd < ?SPCCi811y
f or t lw i nGu ·l-('C'd, b ut v r.ry f .'Tlf-N 1 sured " Purit[-'11s(i o f
t hought o f Tlcnckcn
:
[ 'f\
T hey
Someo11e' l Ure J oFn'nklin Oh("fl(,
E'S < 'nt:L-Chri8t ..
c ould b elieve' \ r.,ith c omplet(' c crt2inty t hf,t
On D,lprch 0 , 1 926, O hc'8e n otifirc1 thC'
t hpt bC'Cf'U8C o f t he \;r'L'trE'clct; f 'rticlC'
BOF~tono
~
t he
[I
b ettl<? bC't\NC'Cll h imseLf
NC\17
EnC,,;-lr-'YH. NevilS 00l11lJf'ny
l
f 1 f'lr
o f t he A pril ir-:f11.H."
o f t hc h-}r~('..r.i.s,C')~ P[c.r:c.u):X v.lould COl1r"ti tU-Gc G Totmdr: f or lCL~21 2 c-r.iol1 q
A ppf'rC'l1tly, f.Icnclrc11 \ Nc'S i ni t i1"11y c ontent t o di~·~mis8 011£'8('1s c' ction
w ith p v c;' rbE"l b lE'f'!t, b ut f 'Iter f!OmE' r rflc-c-tion h e c onr'!ultE'u \ nith
h if! p ublif!her 7 A lfrC'o K nopf, p nd VIIi t h h is b UGil1cfls m(111 c'e;Cr, S2n1u('1
K no)i' ( Alfredvfl f F'ther),
f rom
l~rthur
PJ.1Cl
G firfirlcJ H f'Y[I.
t o {; ctlwr t hey :;-:ought l el'!,F'l coul1s<?l
n encJcC'n hc, (J b e('n i n1 :)rcrQ:'1E'o b y Hr'y[~ 9
p erf o I 'ii1c'llC 0' P i' p cJefC'11f'c l E'v,'ycr f ,t t hc SCOl)C'8 t r:Lpl p fev" m onths
c E'rlicr.
IL~:1Yfl
urC;C'd f' d irect c onfrontF'tion Viii t h t he \!"if'tch f'nu WE'rd
S ociety \' /hich p ouL ': i nvolve t he o E."libcr2tr: s E'lc, b y T iIencken, o f c'
COiJY o f t he o utlc'v" C' d LlF ' gr .zil1 C' d iTcctly t o ChF'f1 C. I',lencke11, f rer o f
f c'mily
rCf~ponflibility
~~incc
thE." r ecent CicF.'th o f hi;.! J:tlothE'r,
\ "IP8
\ MillinG -Go ri:::::k t he . j f'il s cnte11ce h e c ould r ccriv(' i f f ound g uilty.
l k Wf'll-G<?O p ublicity, flO h e i nvitC'd O h['8(' t o L1pke t lw ] Jurchflf!(, o n t]1('
] Joe:ton C01:01"10n, f 't t he B rimr·!tonE' OO:L'"'Ylfr, A pril 5 , 1 926, [ It h lo p .m.•
r .1cnclccn e xpccted i mmediptc p rrff!tq
C'r'Yc~~t,
[ 'nticip,;tc'cJ
2 ] 'c(lerE'l c ourt.
lo::~inc
in
Hpy::=" p lc'nnC'u t o P PPcf'l t he
BO~"1ton,
b ut h oped t o 'i "in p n f 'PP('c'l t o
H2Yi' c lcciueu t o p reuc t h[lt OhF'[-1c
1 ft
E 'ction p gf'in[4t
t he' ELc:..r..c-'!-:t-_rx V 'PS n ot l:Jf'f-!ccl o n C'XiF!ti11G o bclcC'ni t y f 1tf'tutrr: ~ b ut WPF:
E' n on-lcGf'l f 'ttE'r.l '?t t o (Selin p('rr::~om'l r C'vcngc.
I knckE'n hc'u e x)rc8;.u::-d
�- 17thir~
A
. '.'.
p oint
IJ . I<.)' •
~\:v('rfll
d
IV 0 0,
.'I
(I
dflYS b eforC' t he
C h E' P, C' ~ P, s ecking
.
trifl. l~
r~vrng('
1 l0bvioUGly,
n
h e \ Mrote t o
f or y our o perption o n h im'.G
C onfidrntip11y v"r h ope t o [4hovl1 m F'licE' i n
hi~
F 'ction. ti
i ntended t o mC'kf i t c le"r t hpt hc=- wC'nted t o t est t hr
I!knckc=-n
1f'~,
C '1[10
n ot d efy
i t. 9
TIlE" prE'F18 hC'C] be(,11 i nformE'o o f th<? J Jcnckrn-Chf'sE' m E'etine; " no
liVfTe w ['itin{ ': f 't t he COI1Ft1.0n f 'long 1JI1ith f' c rovld o f o ver one' t houspnd
c urious
on-lookerF~.
I t t ook C h ['se o vC'r f i ftC'el1. m inu tE'f4 t o m1"ke h is
w ey t hrou g h t he E 'xpE'ctrnt mob fInd g ivE' M cnckC'n
~
~ilver
h "lf d o11C'r
f or t he A pril iflf!UC' o f t he ~J.~lE..r._~~~!l..JIE'_r_c.~lr'y_... H C'nckcn F 'cccptE'd t he
c oin e.no v'li t h h is m f'rvC'lous ~'1E'nsf' o f h umor fInd o f t h(' r idiculous,
plpcc=-d i t bC'tv"C'cn h is t e('th fino h i t o OFn h C'rd.
ChpsC' thf'11. o rdered
U rnckC'n " rrE'stf'd f or v iolptinc C hrpter 272, 8 E'ction 28, o f t he
P ublic G ('nE'r,,1 Lf'V"8 9 ti P08 [:cp.p.ine; C'no ~C'llinc o b8cene l itrrC'turf'.c;IO
ll
ThE' t rip1 V"C'['! s ct f or t he n ext m orninc;.
T he p rN:icJing j udgE' v ou1d
I\ll='f~Gf'chusetts
d ecicJr i f t ;}IC'tr("ck" v iolC'tro
o b8crnity s tptutrfq
f !pecificf'lly, i f i t c ont['inC'o m etter ( even o nf' w ord) c plculE'ted t o
t 1corrupt t he m orf'ls o f t he' y oung. t tll
1 0s0' t he CflS0'.
r .kncken fInd H pys e xprct0'd t o
N E'ver hfld fl U unicipp1 C ourt J udge f ouncl fl· W ['tch f'lJ,O
WE\ rd d C'f0'nac:'nt n ot g uilty.
ThC"
t:V'.I['[l r ebid o n t h0' c cnr-lorship
di~!trict
qUE'~tionr:
t o p pck t he j ury p gf'inst M enckC'n.
p ttornC'y, ThoTl12s O 'Brirn,
f'n(l . h pd C 'ctuf'lly t hrrtened
F inplly, t he j udgC' s cheduled t o
p rC'Pid0' WPfl c on r:icJ.C'J:"('c1 C' v~lflrm f ri0'11u o f t he WC'tch f'.no Wflro Soci('ty.l~
f!t0' :~) I)('d
B ut, o n t h0' r norning o f t h0' t ripI, l uclr
i nto h i2toryo
T he c pse h ['d b een m oved t o t he c fllcndpr o f t he H onoreble J pmeA
P C'rmentcr, o ne o f t he fe'vil B OAton
utC'tion.
~fre
l'lpgip-tr~te:f"
w ith fl " libcrplt' r 0'p-
Th0' r hift o ccurrea, f' DPprently, bC'Cf'UAe
Nenckeno~
l ewyerA
lC'tE' r Cf'ching t he c ourtroom.
D uring t h e t ripl N 0'nckcn p rgued t hpt h e n e ver p ubliGhed o b8ce:nr
Hi~"
J nf'terif'l.
p urpOGe i n c Oljlillg t o
BOf~ton
WPA n ot t o d C'fend t h0'
m orrl s tpndC'rd o f h iG I Df'GPzine, b ut t o o 0'fcnd h iG r 0'putption flnd
p ropcrty p gr'inrt t h0' i ll0'(!,("l p ctionr o f J . F rf'nklin Cll1"G(,.
p reP-C'ntca
C'
p Ice' f or f rC'0'dom o f t he
P prmcnter t o rc("c1 t hc f 1rticl0'
he:
Y.1oulc~
mOITllnC~ t
preAF~
IIHptr~'ck.
t;
r 'nd t hen
2f!1'~('d
H[' .ys
J udee
ThE' j udc;e [ 'nnotll1ced
t hEd;
r 0'[,u i t t bpt e vrning flno p ronounce h ip, c Je:cif:ion t he n ext
b.:·'[~C'l1
o n v hcthcr o r n ot t hr t 'rticlc t cnde:d t o c orrupt t he
"
m ore.ls o f t he y outh o f I'!IPGf11"chuficttr 1 •
T he S ociety c'ncJ CbPf:C h eu n ever e xpected s uch fl . t rif'l.
F or
�- 19A...mQ.ic_E';n M.t.r..®ry find t o obt~in $ 50,000 i n deme.g<?'~. ThE' i njW1ction
Wfl . ~ 8 ufltein<?'d o n A pril 1 4th.
ThC:' e cqui t tfl.1 find the?' i njunction
c onFttitutrd the?' f irflt f letbpck t hr W ptch E'nd WEI. rd. S ociety hE'd eVE'r
r rc('ivr:d find m~rkrd thE?' b c>ginning o f i tfl g rfldu?l d E'clinE'. ThE'
B Oflton BrE'-hminfl, thE' We.tch fI.nd WE'rd' fI t rf'di t ionfll pource?' o f f inE'ncifl.J
R upport e nd flociE'·l r E'flpE'ctebili t y, 15 VVE'r(;' E 'flpE'cie.lly i rri t e.tE'd b y
thE' outCOrtlr.:' o f thE' "HE'trE'ck" ceflE'. Thr.:'y c onsioerr.:'d ChE'8e thE' pE"rpr;trE'tor o f E'. v ulger flioE'flhovll e nd b lflmed h im f or thE' E 'ntirE' f iesco.
A s ChE'.flf:' be?'cE'mE' fl· h umiliE'te?'d f igure?', ME'nckrn bfCE'mf fin i ntE'rnfltionp ;_
8 ymbol o f irE'E' s peE'ch. 16 To c hE'llE'ngE', E'XpOfle, E'nd d efeE't thE' BOflton
CE'nSOrfl, r equired o nly H .L. V I('ncken'fI c ourflgr; ( or p <:-rvE'rE'dty); f 'nd,
e· b it o f u nforC'8e('n l uck - thr f lvvitch t o J udgr P erm(:'ntc>r's c f'lendE'r. J
�- 20FOOTNo'rES
1 . To undc:rf1t<"nd t h(' 'L18e: o f t h(' t rrm " Puri t f:'l'lism ll v ;rithin thE'
c onte:xt o f t he 1 9200s 7 s ('(' F rC'drrick J . Ho ffmpl1. , n philif'·til1.C' c'ncJ
P uritE'n i n t he: 1 920 9 8,1( ~1'}lL_AlT!c::}.:i.D?~!l._Q.1).:.E'.::c::t..E'.r:lY.., 1 ( Fr-'11, 1 949), '
p p. 2 47-2630
F or f I g cncrE'l 1 -'ccount o f l.Ic:nckC'n ( 'nd h ifl IDE'gP z inr,
seC' D ouglpf1 C . S tenl1erson, li'!.k •. }1e:.n£1~rnJ.. .I.c_op.o_c_l.F'.r:t~ )=:r.oJ1l ] 3pl.timore
( Chicpgo, U niv('rsity o f C hicl"go : Pref<s, 1 971), P P. 3-33~ p c h['ptC'r
r ntitlC'd I tLicnckcn ['ncJ T hr A mc:ricF'n r !Irrcury, 1 924··1926,1; t hrt OO('S
n o t cJ i 8 e us s t he 1\ I~I[' t rE' c k!; C' P iGO dE' •
2 . H .L. r,'ic-nclcC'n t o E rnest B oyd, . tl.ugust 3 0, 1 925, i n 1 ettf:'rs
'
...q f_B....1.A._u1C.tl.Qili':.n f ..• s clre t f d F.'na r'lU'10 t e tE' d b y G uy J . Fo rguC' , --eN iv.7'·Yo J.' k ,
K nopf, 1 961), p . 2 81.
3 . p p u l S . B oyr r , pu:;::LJ1Y.. J:q, . I:rilltL .~hc~ _V.~.C?_e..-:-_S.o.c:.i.~ tv. I':lo_Y(-'JI~.n.;.t.
P!l9 Bo.o~ CS.n~ ox~~ .p.• ..tP. .A.I1!~.r:i.2£.. ( N('~'I Y ork, S cribners, 19 6
p . 1 71,
m,
find ,A . L . S O Wood p I IK(,l?ping . 'bhE' P uri t E'n l)urC' , I t :.r.4c_Al'r!.('xi.~.~:.l1; }'.lC'.r:cy:l~YJ..
6 ( S c Jtcmbrr 1 1 9 25 ), p . 2 5 , f rom ~n i ntcrvicw ~ith t hr D irector o f
t he WE'tcn find Wprd S ociety i n t hc If1ttc:'rv~~ B oston o fficr.
'1-. J p s on F rf'nklin Ch~' 8 c:' ( 1 G 72-19 2 6 ). Bo r n i n Bo ~'! t on, C? ChlCC:' t E' c.
.
e t WCGlypl1 e nd B oston U niversity. A p rpcticinc; m ini8tfr f rom 1 9001907, t hen, (' f ull-timE' C'xC?cutivE' m f@bcr o f thE' W ptch p nd Wf'rd
S ociety. A ppointed P 8 uclcC;E'tC:' t o t hr I ni.:0'rl1etiol1c:'l P urity F c:der-c'tion 'by Woodrov·1 \I\7ilson i n 1 913. A ctiv(' ('C;('il1.f~t r1cJop<?' t rf'ffic ii f 'nd
r 'v"llite s l('vrry m ovell1ent,,:\ A uthor o f TIl<?' DopE' E vi l ( 1912 ) en(] The'
KtJ?r~1~ (,C_o.rJ).f1. '<2.f. .r·i lo.r?J. .~J~G.~.n)_e_c.r~8. ( 1917 f.·---1vho~v:f'~ ) [lio:)}'L .l1leJi_qf~ ; j)~2.:.G.:~:.
4
_ _927 . . .
1 .,
1 .. _ _. r ilc'rc:uis &, C o. 1 1 9c:6,)o 444.
5 . D uncpn Al)' k en 1
riArf~cn('ls
3 ( O ctobC?r 1 1924 , p p. 1 29-136.
o f I Ic,trcd, [,
G. l krbcrt A f!bury, " Up f rom t'icthO(:lif!m;rr
i Jp. 1 ?9-1.35o
~J~(:_
J\IY!f.r:i.c.C".l1;
}IJ~f.:r:.c,u.rY.l.
.T:~e__A.n}E"r.i.cf~~'1.)\lc:)~c.t~.:r:.y..;:.
4- (FC:'brur-'ry, 1 925),
7 . A . L . S . Woou 1
0 ]).
c it., 7 4-70.
c. C h[' rIC' 8 l mgo f f, t:Bo ~~ t on Tlni 1 ight 1;: .~~JlE'.;l\.n~(".r:i_c_p.n. .r,~f}'.C.t~ l~y 9 6
( Dc:cfnbcr y 1 925), P i). 439-IJ-f.-4. . l\n::;off \W:'f! c' c lofl E' f ri (' n (! p n 'j b usi·nC:S8 r 'fl 80CiE'tc o f TvIl"nc]cc'n 9 s.
T hif! f 'rtic1c: r eflects t hE' ( "litip-G
p hiloso;)hy c ulled b y LicnckcYl f rom t he v ·'riting8 o f F riC'drich
H :Lctz8chc:.
9 . II. L . r Jrnckrn t o / 1. 10 S . Wooc11.!\.·iJril 2 , 1 926, i n .J-:rJ:.:t.('.r.F~
c :Lt. ~ } i. c~90; ['nO L rthur G E'rfirld H flYs, .L_f:-'..~t
.JJ:..:r:cf.c~o.n~ )lAru~ (NcvJ Y ork? L ivC'ric;ht1 1 937) 9 p . 1 6C.
.<?.£.}r,,_.~ •. J:!t:'.D:c)c.CJ:h OPe
1 0. i'!i 11i~m b ("nchcf<tc:r, ~o_ .. .Ij_~_ r~('.n_c)c.0'.~~. )J.i.f:.:t:~l~b.c.r: ..o f :th(=,.XC'.F'.c:,.c.
( NOli Y ork9 Collifr~ 1 950) 1 . p. 223~ .~f_'i:_YgJ:h~.~i.n~e£, J \pril G, 1 926 r
p . 319 .Iir' ~t:(o_r_~ .C.o.~~~t.'p._t.? ,t\.~)ri l 6 , 1 926 9 ; ). 1;. 1"no 0 t he r mE' j o r
n e V1Sl)I" PE' rf:4.
1 1. P.o_~~-tO.l'1; P.v.C'.;li}1J~-:~:rT.:~~!.c.r:i..:2J:.J_ jI,~)ril 5 , 1 926, po 1~ .D..t~iJ.Y,
H c'mpshire G I"z,ttC' CTorth~lllJ~ton, ~.1t'f~P..) ~ J \pril 6 9 19;~G, po l~ .1If.Y;~
Y2~r:l~).:i~1~C~~·;· A p·l:{[ 7 , 1 926, j J. 25~ ( 'llll I IE'ys7 )::f.t~Xl:('y.U.o}n}l_i.1~,. o p.
e i t. ~ .l) • 1 6 9 •
�- 21120 B oyer, .t~r:i.:tY~_t:q..Y.I:.t2lt~,_. . Tl1f'_YJ_c..~'.::.9.0_cJ.f.ty )~ov ('.r'~("E.: 1:; ~211S1 ~ook
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( Bo::-:ton, L ittlC', BroviIll <,'nd C ompf'ny, 1 950), p . 1 94.
1 3. C E'rl B od0', !~J.el1c){C'l1 ( Cf'rbond21C', I ll., S outhfrn I l1inoj.f1
U nivC'rr1ity P rC'88, 1 969), p . 2 74; c'no ~1f'nchef1tE'r, 1i._.)~~_}i.';.C'_CJ~('}l.~_ ..
Di.fj":-t}~~('.r:._oX,_~}~~.. _:)?C'_r'-c..G.. o p. c it. ~ o p. 2 35-236.
1 4. U ntil t he' 1 S33 :r.n"Yli8U: OC'cif~ion r C'je'ctC'o i t, U nitrd S tE'tf8
c ourtp. c ontinued t o U8(, t h(' H icklin r ule i n o bGccnity Cc'G('f1 nv,hether t h(' t rn0('ncy o f t lw m c,tter c hf'rgcd P8 o bGcrni t y i 8 t o u ('pr2ve [-'nC! c orrupt t h080' Ph08C' m inds p r\? o j)rn t o 8 uch i nf1u('llCr8,
pnO i .nto w h08e hF.'1108 c' . pub1icE'tion o f tl1i~~ f 10rt Ii1PY f ['ll. I i ( Lord
C hiff J Uf1ticc S ir A 1rxc'ndcr J<"l11(,8 E dmund C ocll:burn i n .TI~('__Q..l:l-.~:}"E..Y.'.':. •.
H:i.:.~J;:liE., L .R. 3 Q . D . 3 60, 1 86e). R eprintp.d i n Q.~r.p~oJ'j~l0-..P..~.::1!.f'llcl.lllf-rkX:L
e 0i t ('o b y E dwpro De G rpzip, (Nrvil Y ork, BOV'ikcr COlilp2ny, 1 9(9), p p.
5 -11. J udg(' P F'rm('ntcr p oulo hE'vc nref~E'11ted r li8 o eci8ion \'11i t h t his
r ulr i n m ind.
.15. T he vvc,tch p na Wf'rd h ['o f'l\Mf'Ys hE'd E't l ef'st t f'ci t p Ul1port
f roEl t,,·'o im~)ortpnt r1cHwnt:=: o f t h0' B oston conllnunity~ t he u .-';Jcr-clC'88
B rphmi118 ( t he S ocictyVs 1 ett('r-hcpd 1 iGted t he n pmcs o f s uch
v ,lorthi0's ( 's C hp1"1('s '.'/. E liot, t hc f ormer p rec1iLlcnt o f Hf'rvc'rcl~ t hc
R rverrnd E ndicott P cC'boOy, h cpdmpstcr o f t he G roton S chool; G odfrey J~ov\1c11 C f-'bot, m i11iol1f,ir(' l i1f-'nufc:'cturcr f'l1cJ p hi1fll1thropif:t9 ,"nd
o thers n uch Pf~ i\~1c8, BO~';cJitch, L o\"e11, 9 uincy,Vi'iC;G1cGvl1orth, L ongf('110',"', fino Coo11.ugT o f t he DO:"1ton C oo11dg(8) t'ne] t he 10vlier-clN'·f~
Il~if1h V,'J.lO V\1('rc o rGi:1nizeo f or m orf'l 8 upport b y t hr p re-clomin[lnt1y
Iri~'h, B oston c lergy.
S cc /\.• L . 3 . Wood, t rKccning t he I>tlrit(~ns
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t he: j('r1"inl~ g F'11cry).
When l'lk11ckcn V '['S [181ccd i 'bout C 11[,8C v 8 u Cf'th,
hE" r ( 1 )licd trWe k illed h im.;; I n r ctrof' 1
JCct L It'nckcn ' .Tote ; :I-lif{ C :c[,th
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�
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Title
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Vol. 02, num. 1, Clio - 1974
Description
An account of the resource
33 pgs
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Western Connecticut State College. Department of History.
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Western Connecticut State College
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1974-09-01
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Title
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H.L. Mencken and the Watch and Ward Society of Boston
Creator
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Bisaillon, Blaise
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._02_num._4_Clio_-_1975/2256/Essay_1.pdf
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Text
-5MY HISTCRY DEGREE:
A PARTIAL MEMOm
* ****
BLA.ISE BISA.ILLOU
B y I V s enior y ear a t t he U niversity o f M assachusetts 1 I d ecided t hat
h istory - American h istory - was 1119' f avorite s ubject.
I h ad b een a S ociology
m ajor f or two y ears ( B.A., 1 966) and p rior t o t hat a Government m ajor a ni p rier
t o t hat a B usiness A dministration m ajor.
Sometime d uring t he f irst seme:r.:.e::." o f
rrry f reshman y ea:r, n ot t oo l ong a fter I h ad s tarted t o d rink c offee, I
t he e xcitement o f l ea.rnillg -
11
discov~E:{
lea.rnillg a cquired b y t he r easoning p rocess a s
o pposed t o knowledge a ccumulated b y t he m emorization p rocess.
So I t hought.
I s hould g et i nto a more " intellectual" d iscipline. E ventual.ly I g ot a round
t o h istory, and a t t he same t ime, i nto f aded d ungarees, t attered s neakers, s.nci
a rmy s urplus:
c 1f
p araphernalia t hat p rovided v isible e vidence, i n t he m id-si.xt.i.es,
w here I was i n r elation t o t he C ivil R ights movement, Bob D ylan, a nd t he w€1I'.
I c ould m arch o n W ashington s ustained b y
IT'f3'
r eading a ssignments, c lass
d iscussions, a nd t erm-paper r esearch ( the war w ith M exico, t he d ecimation o f
t he I ndians, J im Crow, t he P hiJippine I nsurrection, t he Incllow M assacre, Wil:!.ia.'ll
M;y "homework'' a nticipated t he p olitics o f t he n ext weeko
I r ead a nd w rote w ith a n a cute s ense t hat my f riends a nd I w ere p articipating
i n t he c onsequences o f t he e vents we w ere s tudying.
A lthough many s tudents i n
t he 1 960 1 s d enied t he " relevance" o f h istory, h istorians, y ounger o nes e speeia11;
a nd t heir g raduate s tudents, e xperienced d uring t hese y ears a v ivifying e levatio:·
o f h istorical c onsciousness. We u sed yeste~'s s cholarship t o e lucidate t he
p resent a nd t o s upport t omorrow's a rgument a gainst t he p olicies o f o ur
govern~
ment..,
Not u ntil. I V l ast w eek a s a g raduate s tudent d id I g ive a ny c onsidera.timJ.
t o ~. 11 c areer" o r
11
j ob" • • • } tr a dviser h ad wa..-rned me a gainst t he M,.A. T . (~·h s+,er
�- 6of A rts i n T eaching). We a greed o n a n o pen-eD.ied a pproach: a: s traight M.A. w ith
t he o bvious i mplication o f a n e ventual P h.D. The f uture was o pen, t he p resent
e xciting.
I t was a lso d uring t hese y-ears t hat p eople, o lder p eople b egan t o a sk me
w hat I was g oing t o d o a fter I g ot my d egree i n h istory.
I f a sked b y a p rofessor,
I w ould b e a ccomodating a nd d utifull.y s uggest f urther s tudy a nd a l ife d evoted
t o s cholarship.
I f a sked b y r elatives (members a ll o f t he w ork:Ulg-class), I
w ould a utomatical.l.y a nswer " teach" •
B ut a s d egree-day a pproached, w hat h ad b een
c nl.y a n e motional.l.y-ch.arged a bstraction -
the w ar - -became, f or me, a d readful
r eality, a nd I knew t hat t he r eception o f rrq M.A. i n h istory w ould b e s oon f ollowed b y a n i nduction n otice.
The d ratt b oard i nformed me t hat
m:r d eferment
d ays. were o ver (unl.es~t, p er-chance, I c ould g et a t eaching p osition).
And s o
h 3.lf-heartedly I w rote t o s everal h igh s chools i n w estern M assachusetts a nnounc:L.!g my
'
a vailability a nd p roudly l isting a n M.A. ( American h istory) o n my resu.'ne.,.
I n A pril K ing was a ssasinated, and t wo months l ater, RFK.
I n t he w eeks bet~~e~.
t hose t wo s tunning t ragedies, I was i nterviewed b y s everal h igh s chool p rincipals, e ach a sking me t he f ollowing t wo q uestions:
" Are y ou c ertified?"' a..'"ld
trWhat i s y our d raft s tatus?"
I o fficially became a n M.A .. i n h istory o n a s tifling h ot J une da:y a nd a fter
t he
ceremor~
ba.~1k
I d rove a lone t o my f avorite p lace: a g rove o f w illows o n a h igh
above t he C onnecticut R iver w here t he Holyoke Range l ooks l ike a s trand o f
b lue humps s tretched a cross t he d ownriver
hori~on.
I h ad d one my b est p aper
t here, n ote c ards s cattered o ver a n o ld a.rm;V.olanket. B ut o n t hat p articular d ay
I j ust s at i n t he s hade, a bsent.-mi.ndedly w atching t he c oming-and-goings o f t he
t w:tttering b ank s wall.ows, a nd w ondered what I s hould do w ith my M.A. i n h istory_
,
a::,;:n-ded t o me b y a r elatively p restigious e astern u niversity, n o l esst
On t he e vening
r:rta.~;cy-~»
:mu.c;:t~,
The r est
or
or
R obert K ennedy's f uneral, I m et t he g irl I w ould e ventually
t hat summer I d id v ery l ittle e xcept r ead, t hink, l isten t o
f ollow t he Re•l
Sox~
d rink b eer a nd s tu:ff.,
T here wa.s j ust me, w ith
~.
gj!."J..
�-1friend, some o ther f riends, a nd a n M.A. i n h istory, alXl t he Army was a fter
:rr,y b ody.
B ut t he m ills o f t he s elective s ervice g round e xceedingly s low t hat
summer a nd when autUJIDl a rrived,
Icy"
d raft n otice h ad n ot,,
M y g irl f riend l eft
f or H awaii t o f ulfill a t eaching c ontract a nd I g ot a j ob i n a n a pple o rchard,
M cintosh, C ortland, D elicious, a nd B aldwin.
On S eptember 1 4th I w ent t o S pring-
field, a s o rdered b y t he G overnment, f or my p re-induction p by'sical.
I k new t hat
my 25~ar-old s elf 1IBS i n " A-1 c ondition" a nd I k new I was s mart e nough t o know
t he w rong a .nswers.
B ut h abit t ook o ver, m qbe p ride, a nd I p assed a ll a spects
o f t he p re-induction i nspection.
T he a pple-picking s eason e nded t he week N ixon g ot e lected a nd I f ound a j ob
i n c onstruction:
a C olonial H ilton, n o l essl
ber I g ot a c all f ran a n A ir F orce r ecruiter.
T hen o ne d ay i n d eep, d ark Doce:m-
He knew t hat I was g oing t o g et
a n i nduction o rder e arly t he n ext week a nd h e t herefore s aid:
" Blaise, y ou're
g oing t o g et d rafted i nto t he A r'Iq and y et y ou h ave a n M.A. i n h istoryl Why
-
n ot j oin t he ; !!!: F orce and p ut t hat d egree t o g ood u se. ! 'ou c ould t each a t t he
War C ollege, d o r esearch a nd w riting f or t he h istorical d ivision . ... y our
O'i\'!l
a partment • • t hirty-five h our week . .. m odern gymnasium • •• i n t he s hade."
I
t hought i t o ver, c alled h im b ack, a nd s aid " O.K."
I w ent downtown r ight away
a nd t old e veryone I s aw t hat i f y ou h ad a n M.A. i n ~tory y ou h ad i t made i n
t he A ir F orce.
B ut when I g ot home I f lopped down o nto my b ed a nd b egan t o
t hink, t o r ecall, t o r ealize a ll t hat I h ad r eed a nd t hought a nd s aid d uring tl-..e
p ast f ew y ears 1 a nd I c hanged ·1113" - mind-. . "When I f ailed t o me-et h im a t B radley
.
F ield, t .hc r ccrui.ter -vas v ery a ngry.
I n h is o ffice b e h ad s everal. w a.ll.s-full
o f r ecruitment c ertificates a nd c erta.inl.y I w ould h ave b een a p rize c atch.
t elephoned me f rom t he a..irp<n-t. a nd.
from. F ort D ix.
asked~
He
. sareastical.ly, t o s end h im a p ostcard
T hen t old me a gain t hat t he A rmy 11 wou1d n ot g ive a h oot o r a
h ollex-" f or my M.A. i n h istory.
My c ousins v ere M arines; my f ather, i n W orld War I I, h ad b een a p a.ra:trooperr.
a.n:l I a s a c ldl.d» a s a n
adol..es.c~m~, a nd e ven a..ft.er~ d reamed o f l >eine; a..
s oJ .d ier.
�- 8Almos-t s ingle-handedly I h ad r epelled h ordes o f Red C hinese i nvading t he C onneeticut V alley. M illions h ad g one t o wars f or c enturies o n e nd. 'Why s hould I
b e d ifferent., o r d ifficult?
s ::lxties. we w ere a ll i nto
,
t he c over o f
~,
I t lf'Ould b e a n ' experience" a nd Lord I mon., i n t he
n e xperiences".
a nd o n t he
11
S o I was r esigned.
CB3 E vening News" •
I s aw m ;yself on
B ut n ot f or l ong • • •
F or, y ou s ee, I h ad t hought t oo much, a nd h ad r ead t oo ;much, a nd h ad t alked
-
t.oo :mu.ch • •• a nd I now r ealized w hat I h ad t o d o.
guy c ynicism.
No m ore mind-games; a nd w ise.-
U ncle S am's b us was r ea.ll.y o n t he way now .• _.., and I r ealized t hB.t
a lthough my d egree i n h istory h ad n ot g otten me a t eaching p osition, o r, a s c":'
J anuary, 1969 1 a.rry o ther p osition., I h ad, w hile w orking t owards t hat d egree,
r eached a nother k ind o f " position" -
call i t : Ultellectual o r e motional, i t
d oesn't m atter; i t was, I s uppose, a " moraln d ecision -
and i n s pite o f m y .n1-
American, w hite, l ower m iddl.e-elass 1 F rench-Ganadian, I rish-catholic b ackground
- I w as,
reluctant~,
s lowly, b ut s urely, r ecognizing t hat I had t o s ay
"N::.~'
t o -what I h ad aJ.ways a ssumed I w ould w illingly a nd w ithout q uestion, a nswer
rr 0 f
c ourse • • • ".
D uring t hat m onth o f i ndecision, w hile p ondering w hat I r eally o ught t o
w ith my o ne l ife, I s till needed money._
I g ot a j ob as a s hort-order c ook,
t he 4 P .M. t o m idnight s hift, i n a s nack-bar o n t he UMa.ss c ampus.
1 8th I l eft w ork ( as u sual) a nd w ent home ( as u sual).
d .:J
C !l
On J anuary
A t 7 A.M. t he n ext mcrni~;
I r eported f or m ilitary i nduction, a nd was s cheduled, b y t he G overnment, t o b e
a t F ort J ackson, S outh C arolina b y
5
P.M. t hat same d ay.
: in m:1 p ocket a nd n o c hange o f u nderwaar s o a t
a s I h ad p lanned, s huffling h amburgers.
4 o 'clock
B ut I h ad rrry c ar k6;rs
I w as b ack a t w ork, j~2st
N either rrry f ellow e mployees n or rrry bns:·;
e ver s uspected t hat e xcept f or my M .A. i n h istcry, I w ould h ave b een a t t hat
moment somewhere o ver t he B lue· R idge M ountains, f :cying s outh, o n my- way t o a
1 5.fe-time o f G I B enefits.
Now I w as f ree t o m ake m y· w ay i nto t he w orld:
gree.
F irst, I n eeded a b etter job...
..
T he b ody I
bao
j ust me a nd my h istory d ed eni.ed t ree A:rruy, I ga"Te t.o
�-9Agway~
I nc.J and I l et t hem u se i t t o u nl.oad f reight c ars f ull o f f ertilizer,
a nd grain~ a nd c ement.
One d ay t he m anager s aid t o me: ' 'Don't j ust b e p bysica.l..
W ith a n M.A. i n h istor;y y ou c an h elp me o ut i n t he b rain s ection.
-
o n w hat 1 s m oving and w hat i an• t , a nd w hat w n eed.
h ere ( in t he w arehouse) f or m e."
d ervish.
Keep a n e ye
Keep t rack o f t hings o ut
F or e ight m onths I worked l ike a ' Whirling
S ix d ays a w eek I p iled t he t rucks o f t he f anners o f New E ngland
h igh w ith f eed f or t heir a n:imals, l imestone a nd f ertilizer f or t heir f ields,
b arbed w ire 1 m alathion, p arathion, a nd DDT. B ut I c ould n o l onger r ationalize
a. $ 79-a-week s a.lar;y w ith s ix y ears o f " higher e ducation" 1 i n s pite o £ t he Woof;~
s tock t rip.
A t t he e nd o£ summer I g ot t he o pportunity t o j oin a s urveying c rew.
I
h ad n o s uch e xperience 1 b ut t he c hief s aid t o me 1 nI f y ou • ve g ot a n M.A.. i n
1-,j.story~
y ou're p robably' s mart e nough t o r un a { surveyor's)
gun."
S o f or
$ :155-a-week ( take-bene), I t ook 111¥ d egree t o t he f uture s ite o f R t. 9 11 Spring~
f ield t o C hicopee, a nd l earned i n n o t ime how t o r un t he g un.
w orkers w ere young a nd o ut-o£-sorts. w ith t he w orldo
j ust l oved me a nd If11' d egree.
M ost o f my f ellow
H ippies w ith j obs.
B esides b eing a n a greeable c ompanion a nd a n a ble
w orker, I was o f s ervice t o t hem i n t wo o ther wa791
( 1) o n t he New York~" ~
crossword p uzzles w hile w aiting f or t he t emperature t o r ise a bove
r ain t o s top falling~ a nd
T hey
15° o r t he
( 2) b y p roviding h istorical p erspective f or t heir
n un-American" a s w ell a s a nti-American g rievances w hile c ontinuously t esting
t he l ogic o f t heir o pilrl.ons, a nd, o n t he o ther h and, r ambling o n a bout t his an:i
t hat -
providing t hem, i na.dvertantly'1 w ith w hat t hey t hought was b rillant 1 i r-
refutable e vidence t hat a r ad:ical.. p osition w as, i n f act, a correct" a t t hat
po:L~.
i n A merican h istor;y.
W ell, I made a l ot o f money, w atched a h ighway g et built~ a nd g ot D'L3rried.
R t. 9 1 was c auplete.
I w rote s everal. 1 ett.ers o f i nquir;r t o c ommunity c olleges
t hroughout t he W est, a nd w ithout w aiting f or a rq r eplies, p acked e verything we
h ad i nto a M ustang, a nd i n e arly A pril 1 970, w ent w estward t o
S ')e
w hat you.
�-locould g et w ith a d egree i n h istory o n t he o ther s ide o f t he m ighty
Mis~issippi.
I e stablished a h eadquarters i n a m otel n ear S anta C ruz b eaches a nd e ach
d ay, w ith ray t ranscript a nd a b ig s mile, I would v isit S tate ( of C alifornia)
Unemployment O ffices a nd p rivate e mpla,ment a gencies.
Z ilch.
B ut a man i n
S an J ose was s o i mpressed b y my M.A. i n h istory t hat h e w anted t o c ontact a man
i n New Y ork who m ight g et me a j ob o n t he
!!!ll p treet
J ourna11
B ut,
it~
rrry M.A. i n h istory t hat d id g et me rrry n ext j ob • ••
M;y w ife a nd I w ere p arled on V irginia Avenue i n R eno, Nevada, a nd a s I
g ot o ut o f t he c ar I t old h er t hat i f I d idn't g et a j ob h ere, we w ould t ake
ray M.A. a nd g o t ry L .A.
I was a f ew m inutes e arly s o I w andered f ascinated
a round t he m ain n oor o f t he Nevada C lub, a g ambling c asino.
f ronted me a nd a sked f or a n I .D.
I was 2.7.
I t old h im I was w aiting f or a n
I had s een t he " Help
i nterview w ith t he o wner.
a fter a rriving t he n ight b efore t ram C alifornia.
c ontempt. My w orn
am.
A s ecurity-man
~ianted"
a d i n t he m orning papet"
He l ooked a t me w ith o bvious
f aded d ungarees ( the same p air) 1 my c loddy' work b oots JJ
my Wyoming s heep-herder's j acket, a nd rrry h air ( too l ong f or Nevada:) d idn't h~?.lp
m atters DDlch.
B ut w hat h e c ould n ot s ee, c rmnpled a nd s weat-stained i n rrry fi;,:t;
i nside my c oat p ocket, was ITJY t ranscript.
I g ot i n l ine b ehind two w hite
who w ere v ery h eavy i nto B rylcream, b rightly-colored p laid s portcoats, a nd
p ointed s hoes.
No w ayl
I
to-fifteen s econds e acho
i f I was m arried.
th~t.
The owner t hen waved t hem a side a fter
B ut I was c ool - - and e ducated.
" No," I a nswered -
du:.~3·S
bl:u~k
t~n
He f irst a sked me
a l ittle w hite l ie b ecause i f I h ad s~d
" yes", h e m ight h ave t hought I was i n Reno j ust l ong enough t o g et a d ivorce
-
and I c ouldn't t ake t hat c hanee.
T hen h e a sked:
How I!Dlch i s 13 x l J? 14 : : ;:
14? lS x 1 5? • • • " Next I r ecited :m;r employment h istory f rom a ge t en
· Hith t his k icker:
11 • ••
a nd er..decl.
a nd i n t he m eantime I g ot a n M.A. i n h istory f rom t he
U niversity o f M assachusetts.''
I t was a t t hat p recise m anent t hat I removed t he
c rumpled document f rom rrry c oat p ocket a nd f lattened i t o ut u pon t he c ounter.
The owner t hen t urned h is t wisted, b ullet-ridden b ody t owards me a nd g lnnced.
�- 11a.t t he p aper b efore h im.
He saw. a l 1Bt o f c ryptic s emi-words s uch a s "Sem
P rog E ra" 1 "Am Rev P er'' 1 a nd " Lab H ist" a s w ell a s a column o f A 's a nd B ' s .
T hen, gru:tf:cy1 l ike t he o ld g anster b e was 1 h e o rdered me t o " get a h aircut
a nd r eport h ere a t
4 A.M.
t omorrow."
W ith f air m ultiplication s kills and a
d egree i n h istocy1 a nd a fter r egistering
If'13'
t humbprint w ith t he F BI, I became
a k eno w riter i n R eno, N evada.
One d ay a fter work I w ent i nto t he b eautiful Reno P ublic L ibrary a nd
r egistered f or a l ibrary c ard.
( I had a lways l oved l ibraries a nd had b een a n
a rdent l ibrary u ser s ince t he a ge o f s ix. )
UMass came t o me j ust t hen -
Memories o f Iffl' f reshman y ear a t
memories o f If'13' cl.aiJni.ng a c ertain c ozy c arrel
d eep i n t he b owels o f good o l' G oodell L ibracy • • • memories o f weekend
eveninc~
o f i ntense s tudy i n t he l ibrary w hile o ccasional.ly g oing o ut f or and s muggl!r,;;
b ack i n two c ups o f h ot c offee -
in w inter t hey w ould b e c arried d iscreetly i..."'l
t he p ockets o f a s !d.-jacketJ i n warmer w eather, i n a b ook b ag h eld v ertica.l.ly -· ·
y et c arefully • •• memories • ••
On a nother e vening, w hile i n t he U niversity o f Nevada L ibracy w aiting f or-
the s howing o f a movie 1 I b egan t o n otice s ane p eople s curryiDg p urposely i n
a nd o ut o f d oors t hat l ed t o p laces a pparently o ut-of-bounds t o s tudents.
I
l ooked s lowly a round a t t he b ooks a nd j ournals, s o n eat a nd n atural u pon t heir
s helves, a nd t hought:
"Somebody m ust work h ere, I mean, b esides t he l ady who
c hecks o ut t he b ooks."
A f ew weeks l ater I r eceived a l etter f ran t he D ean o f C asper Community
C ollege i n Wyoming i nviting me t o a pply f or a n i nstructorship i n h istory.
A ll
I h ad t o d o was t o s end t ranscripts ( of c ourse, I t hought) a nd f ive ( fivel)
a cademic r eferences.
I c ould o nly t hink o f t hree p rofessors who, i f g iven
e nough d etails, m ight remember me.
('Why d idn't a nyone e ver t ell me a bout
r eferences and p lacement o ffices a s I w ent t hrough s chool?
l w ould h ave gladJ:7
t raded, for~ i nformation, a.ey d ata I h ad a bout t he Smoot-Hawley T ariff'!)
I wrot.e t o t he t hree p rofessors a nd t o m y h igh s ehoo1 : football_ c oach.
I c ould
�- 12C asper w rote b ack i n a f ew w eeks a nd t old me t hat
not come u p w ith a f i.tth.
- --
t hey w anted a t l east t he M.A. i n h istocy a s w ell a s t eaching e xperience.
Reasonable e nough, I t hought.
I c annot i magine a ey a rea o n e arth more s pectacular o r more e nchanting
t han t hat
or
t he d eserts, m ountains, r ivers and l akes around R eno, N evada.
N or c an I i magine a ey o ccupation d uller t han t hat o f a k eno w riter.
So I l ett
t he " Biggest L ittle C ity i n t he World" a nd I came hanea a cross J ohn Freemont
a nd J ed:ldiah S mith's G reat B asin, t hrough t he c&ey"onJands o f J ohn W esley P owell·
a nd Edward A bbey, t he T aos o f t he P ueblo and D .H. L awrence, t he G reat S tate-cf
T exas, u ntil I r eached S pringfield, M assachusetts w here I g ot a j ob i n t he l tX8l
library
·· .
t here a t a sa.l.a.ry'
or
$4~ 789.
A y ear l ater .I . enrolled i n t he S chool
ot: L1.brar7" S cience a t Simmons Col..lt>ge
-
i n· Boston ( where I l earned t hat J o bn Dewey d id n ot i nvent t he Dewey D ecimaL · - ····
---.
.
-~
System.) a nd e leven m onths l ater I a dded t he i nitials M.S .. t o t hose o f B• .A.o .. e,td.
H...A6
A fter r q g raduation I t ook my d egrees a nd e xperiences t o J1l9' Alma M ater
b ut was q11ickly
d 1 a mi s eed
a.t l east t hree d egrees.
.
because t hey w anted a cademic l ibrary e xperience ~
S o I s pent t he n ext f ew w eeks w riting l etters t o
1 :1braties i n N orth A merica a nd d riving a C ourtesy Cab t hrough t he night~ime ·
s treets
or r q hometown, u sing r q M.A.
i n h istory a s a s ource
formation w ith w hich t o s pice c rosstown c onversations.
or
i deas . and i n-
I s topped d riving t he
ta:x:l "When I was c hosen, o ver t hirty o ther c andidates, t o b e t he new d irector
o f t he p ublic l ibrary i n C oventry, C onnecticut.
The B oard o f T rustee•s- selec- -·
-
t.ion c ommittee -was m ost i mpressed., I l ater l earned, by' liiY' y ear o f e xperiencein S pringfield, J1l9' (new) h aircut, my (new)
p leasant., s miling d isposi.tion.
$15"7 . 00 B ill B lass s uit, a nd my · ·· .:.·.
T hey l iked t he M.A. ~for t he p restige i t ·
c onferred u pon - their l ittle l ibrary.
A t C oventry I d id s uch h istoey-oriented p rojects a s h elping a s tudent
"W1'ite a p aper abou.t t he r emoval o r t he C herokee Indian.q, a nd w ith a $ 6000
b ook b udget, " develop" t he l ibra.ry' s c ollection o f A merican hi.•:rtt:-1.7 and
�~13-
American l iterature.
\
I a ssure y ou: o ne would h ave t a, g o a l ong w q t o f ind
a nother l ibrary w ith t he c omplete w orks O f J ack
Kerouac,~for
i nstance.
T hen, a t t he a ge o f t hirty, I d ecided t o g et s erious a bout
w ell a s f inancial s ecurity.
c areer a s
I d rove u p t o B oston o ne Monday a nd c onsulted t he
j ob f ile i n t he Simmons C ollege P lacement O ffice.
p ositions.
Ifi9'
T here w ere t wo l ikely
The p ublic l ibra.ry i n Richmond, V irginia h ad a n o pening i n t heir
H istory a nd L iterature D ivision.
(Many l arge p u.blic l ibraries a nd u niversit;;-
libra.ries d ivide t heir c ollections a nd t heir s taff i nto s ubject a reas.)
a pplied t here a nd was i nvited f or a n i nterview.
I
My- wife and I f ound Richmon:l
b oth s ophisticated a nd c harming, a s outhern B oston, h eavy w ith h istory, w ith
s everal c olleges a nd u niversities t o e nliven t he a tmosphere, a nd, a pparently,
i nexpensive, b ut c OOlfortable a nd c onvenient h ousing i n a s lightly s habbier
v ersion o f D .C.'s G eorgetown s ection.
sisting t hat I h ave two months
to
B ut I t hink I l ost t his j ob b y i n-
r elocate.
'T hen I a pplied f or t he o ther l ikely p osition.
C onnecticut S tate C ollege's R uth A. Haas L ibrary.
And h ere I am a t W estern
I was v ery h appy t o h ook
u p w ith a • •solvent" s tate s uch a s Tom M eskill's C onnecticut.
" Security,n I
thought~
" you a re m ine • •• n
�
Dublin Core
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Title
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Vol. 02, num. 4, Clio - 1975
Date
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1975
Still Image
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Physical Dimensions
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9 pgs
Dublin Core
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Title
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MY HISTORY DEGREE: A PARTIAL MEMOIR
Creator
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BLAISE BISAILLON
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1105/LC225.5.B55.pdf
6627b3f73f2e19663292c5c1dc8987bf
PDF Text
Text
LC225.5.B55
�LC225.5.B55
�LC225.5.B55
�LC225.5.B55
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Modern methods of reporting to parents and one elementary school's experience with the conference system.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Blanding, Marie.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Parent-teacher conferences
Grading and marking (Students)
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LC225.5.B55">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LC225.5.B55
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1970
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/877/RT50.B64.pdf
9e1212a409b9b86c4cc6ed90076a3cee
PDF Text
Text
RT50.B64
�RT50.B64
�RT50.B64
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Issues affecting nursing documentation using the focus charting method.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bleckinger, Catherine.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Nursing records
Medical records
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=RT50.B64">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
RT50.B64
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1993
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1365/BF723.R3B55.pdf
939184e438bbac46cb280dd576e9432e
PDF Text
Text
BF723.R3B55
�BF723.R3B55
�BF723.R3B55
�BF723.R3B55
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Race attitudes of children in a suburban town.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Blodget, Wanda.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Race awareness in children
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=BF723.R3B55">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
BF723.R3B55
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1964
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1255/LB1029.N6B55.pdf
922b32c642d369c68a2b8edb8108cb93
PDF Text
Text
LB1029.N6B55
�LB1029.N6B55
�LB1029.N6B55
�LB1029.N6B55
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The investigation and organization of a nongraded elementary school program.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bloxsom, Nancy.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Nongraded schools
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB1029.N6B55">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LB1029.N6B55
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1968
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/240/0a6c21ffe4f4ea176414dac965bd8ec0.mp3
875ab1a1a6604fa805aa496e198a2b67
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
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Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
36 min.
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with John Hartcorn
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bonisalli, Jeff
Subject
The topic of the resource
Hartcorn, John
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
John Hartcorn's experience coming to America
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Immigration
Oral History
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Veterans_of_World_War_II_Oral_Histories/2353/ww2_oh_borst.mp3
de68adef9efb4529ece62d3f82d822cd
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Veterans of World War II Oral Histories
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2008-2009
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/veterans-of-world-war-ii-oral-histories-collection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer">View collection</a>
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This collection contains oral histories conducted by students in the HIS 298 course at WCSU. Veterans interviewed are from the western Connecticut area.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Interviewee
The person(s) being interviewed
Borst, Joseph
Dublin Core
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Identifier
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13_ww2_oh_borst.mp3
ww2_oh_borst.mp3
Title
A name given to the resource
Joseph E. Borst interview
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Borst, Joseph
Hogeland, Chris.
Description
An account of the resource
40 mins
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Interview with Joseph Borst, first selectman of Newtown. He was born in Long Island. Helped with Victory Gardens and was an aircraft spotter. Enlisted in the Army Air Corps in 1944. Went to Fort Dix and sent to Biloxi MS for pilot training but found out on the way that the war was over in Europe.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2008-05-01
Subject
The topic of the resource
World War, 1939-1945--Personal narratives, American
United States Air Force
World War II
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1160/LB1584.B58.pdf
d858a61c3796a1a47859762995911eed
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The development of a basic social studies curriculum guide for Cheshire, Massachusetts, School, grades one through eighta case study.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bourdon, Arthur.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Social sciences
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB1584.B58">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LB1584.B58
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1967
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1007/PS2293.B68.pdf
84d0bcab41092f7eba8fbbc04b790a8b
PDF Text
Text
PS2293.B68
�PS2293.B68
�PS2293.B68
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Longfellow's artistic selection of available material for his poem, Evangeline
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bourgeois, Robert M
Subject
The topic of the resource
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=PS2293.B68">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
PS2293.B68
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1965
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/901/RC564.B69.pdf
e69a46edd4bcfd48cfcedb2d7fb69128
PDF Text
Text
RC564.B69
�RC564.B69
�RC564.B69
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
The acquisition of knowledge following a thirty-day psychoeducational chemical dependence relapse prevention program.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bowe, Donna.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Substance abuse
Substance abuse
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=RC564.B69">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
RC564.B69
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1993
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/859/U818.B6.pdf
9507ac579fcc9609d172a7137b18828f
PDF Text
Text
U818.B6
�U818.B6
�U818.B6
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Guns that fought the Civil War.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bowman, James F.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Weapons
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=U818.B6">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
U818.B6
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1960
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1135/LB2157.B69.pdf
7e37df9dccf74c17606b43449a7dc046
PDF Text
Text
LB2157.B69
�LB2157.B69
�LB2157.B69
�LB2157.B69
�LB2157.B69
�LB2157.B69
�LB2157.B69
�LB2157.B69
�LB2157.B69
�LB2157.B69
�LB2157.B69
�LB2157.B69
�LB2157.B69
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
An exploratory study of change in student teacher behavior in guiding learning opportunities.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Box, Dorothy Mae.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Student teachers
Student teaching
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LB2157.B69">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LB2157.B69
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1960
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/939/QB62.B6.pdf
894e782fccf2bc274e99daf1f9b3906f
PDF Text
Text
QB62.B6
�QB62.B6
�QB62.B6
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Astronomy in the high school curriculum.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Boyd, Esther Raymond.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Astronomy
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=QB62.B6">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
QB62.B6
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1970
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/286/Salzo.mp3
8a4fbe2ef058081b25daf9624e3e73b4
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
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Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
21 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Tony Ssonko
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Boylan, Will
Subject
The topic of the resource
Ssonko, Tony
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Tony Ssonko was placed in a boarding school at the age of four in Uganda, ever since then he dreamt of immigrating to America. His dream was fulfilled when he was chosen by a U.S. sponsored Immigrant Lottery. He discusses cultural differences as well as his expectations, perceptions and realizations of America.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Immigrant Lottery
Immigration
Norwalk Community College
Oral History
Uganda
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/908/RA971.3.B73.pdf
174c000d2adabcddfd8f2002a8f1494e
PDF Text
Text
RA971.3.B73
�RA971.3.B73
�RA971.3.B73
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
An examination of the cost of nursing care in a select diagnostic related grouping.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bradley, Sharon.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Nursing services
Diagnosis related groups
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=RA971.3.B731991">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
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RA971.3.B731991
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1991
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/92/gov_letter017.pdf
fac77790279031261b5123b527323c76
PDF Text
Text
�
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
American Suffragette Letter by James H. Brady
Creator
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Brady, James H.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1911-01
Description
An account of the resource
A letter by Ex-Governor James H. Brady published in The American Suffragette.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this letter, James H. Brady states his support for women's suffrage in the United States. During his term as governor of Idaho, he observed that allowing women to vote is better for everyone, and he asserts that if all women could vote, the United States would be better off.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Connecticut Woman Suffrage MS 003
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
The American Suffragette
his 298
James H. Brady
male support of female suffrage
Suffrage
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1323/G141.B73.pdf
7f28d331918edb1c159829ad48702e3b
PDF Text
Text
G141.B73
�G141.B73
�G141.B73
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
An outline of world expansion from early beginnings to the dawn of the age of discovery, circa 3000 B.C. - 1500 A.D.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Branch, Veronique deR.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Historical geography
Geography, Ancient
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=G141.B73">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
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G141.B73
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1963
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/919/QP96.5.B73.pdf
4873551036a42a915461760afae3a5b4
PDF Text
Text
QP96.5.B73
�QP96.5.B73
�QP96.5.B73
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Differences in hemoglobin levels with fingerstick puncture in children.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Brandon, Eve.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Hemoglobin
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=QP96.5.B73">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
QP96.5.B73
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1994
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1351/DS135.P7B7.pdf
3eaa5cd081810a55bdec9d7f81b9b4b4
PDF Text
Text
DS135.P7B7
�DS135.P7B7
�DS135.P7B7
�DS135.P7B7
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The Portuguese inquisition.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bras-Danges, Maria.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Jews
Inquisition
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=DS135.P7B71991">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
DS135.P7B71991
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1991
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._47_num._1_Clio_-_2020/6735/9_Braucci_History_of_Radio.pdf
6b4bd02cb2e64a2e282b2d787f78c48b
PDF Text
Text
Braucci, History of Radio
The History of Radio and its Influence in America during the
1920s and 1930s
VickiValaine Braucci
During the interwar years, Americans experienced dramatic social and
cultural changes. No print media such as newspapers or magazines had the
level of impact that electronic media such as radio and movies exerted during
those two decades of the twentieth century. Though these types of media
seemed to draw the nation together by blunting regional differences and
imposing similar tastes and lifestyles, they also disseminated racial and
cultural caricatures and derogatory stereotypes. It is the purpose of this paper
to explain what mass media is, offer a brief history of radio, and document
examples of how this electronic media medium influenced American culture
in the 1920s and 1930s.
Mass media is a method of communication that uses technology to
reach the vast majority of the general public. In the 1920s and 1930s, this
media reached people in two different ways. The primary avenue was
traditional print media, which included books, newspapers, and magazines.
The new or electronic avenue consisted of radio and the movies.
By the first decade of the twentieth century, it was not just scientists
who were experimenting with radio technology. American tinkerers began
building their own sets to transmit and receive radio signals. Magazines even
printed schematics. In spite of the fact that commercially available parts were
scarce, amateurs forged ahead and often constructed their sets out of
household objects and junk.1
Initially, this hobby was pursued primarily for personal pleasure and
interest. It grew more popular with the newly invented vacuum tube and the
practice of “DXing,” in which wireless operators attempted to send their
1
Clive Thompson, “Air Waves,” Smithsonian Magazine 45, no. 6 (2014): 41.
65
�Clio: WCSU History Journal
point-to-point signal as far as possible to as many wireless operators as
possible. However, a second and more damaging activity received significant
attention from the print media and the government. The harmful antics of
pranksters threatened the state of amateur wireless. In addition to their use of
airwaves to spread rumors, threats, and misinformation, they would send
obscene, vulgar, and incorrect messages to ships to annoy the captains or to
send the ships off course. These activities brought increased negative
attention. The situation became even more serious with the tragic sinking of
the Titanic. According to investigation documents, once distress calls had
been received by the Marconi station in Newfoundland, amateur radio
operators along the East Coast filled the air with questions, rumors, and most
of all interference, which severely hampered rescue efforts.2 These amateurs
were nicknamed “hams,” a term coined as a slur by professional telegraph
operators.3
These events spurred two efforts to remove the perceived threats that
amateurs posed. The first was to have the federal government create laws to
regulate this new type of communication. This was motivated by the Navy’s
growing frustration with amateur interference. The second effort was the
public commentaries about the future of this particular communication
technology. Newspapers and magazines turned against amateurs using
wireless devices, citing the rise in complaints, when in fact, they were fearful
of the potential loss of their profits. The Radio Club of America, with its
various chapters, organized across the country, lobbied extensively to protect
the amateurs. After a couple of years, the House of Representatives finally
passed the Radio Act of 1912. It did not eliminate amateur transmitters as
some had wanted, but it did force amateurs to operate on restricted
wavelengths.4
Frank Conrad, a Westinghouse engineer, generally gets credit for
transmitting in 1920 the first regular AM broadcasts in the United States from
Stephen Lippmann, “Boys to Men: Age, Identity, and the Legitimation of Amateur Wireless
in the United States,
1909-1927,” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 54, no. 4 (2010): 660-661.
3 Gugliotta, “Tireless Wireless,” 27.
4 Lippmann, “Boys to Men,” 659 and 661.
2
66
�Braucci, History of Radio
his East Pittsburgh garage, station KDKA.5 His show aired every Wednesday
and Saturday, with some sports scores and some talk, but mostly music. This
marks the appearance of “broadcasting” as opposed to wireless telephony,
where a voice or a piece of music is sent out from one location to multiple
receivers.6 Furthermore, when Conrad played all his records from his
personal collection, he struck a deal with a local store to supply him with more
records in return for on-air promotions. This arrangement is believed to be
the beginning of radio advertising.7
It seemed that everyone “jumped on the bandwagon” into
broadcasting. Radio stations popped up everywhere sponsored by banks,
cities and towns, creameries, hospitals, public utilities, universities, and
colleges, among others. Stations were set up in manufacturing factories,
newspapers, church basements, fire departments, and even businesses like
Strawbridge & Clothier in Philadelphia. It was recorded that local politicians,
dignitaries, and musicians broadcasted from a glass-enclosed studio on the
department store’s fourth floor with an audience and curious shoppers as the
spectators.8 Some other ventures were: the Palmer School of Chiropractic in
Davenport, Iowa; the John Fink Jewelry Company in Fort Smith, Arkansas
started WCAC; the Detroit Police Department began the mnemonic KOP, and
the Chicago Tribune initiated WGN.9
Up to the mid-1920s, the federal government imposed few rules on
who could broadcast and when. In order to bring some order to the growing
number of stations and broadcasters who were appropriating their own radio
wavelengths or frequencies, Herbert Hoover, as Secretary of the Commerce
Department, claimed jurisdiction over the radio in 1922. He was mostly
responsible for the limited government radio policy of the 1920s because he
believed that free enterprise should regulate itself with a minimum of
Joannie Fisher, “The Radio Reinvented,” U.S. News & World Report, 131, no.15 (2001): 36.
Blin, “The First Half Century,” 19.
7 Gugliotta, “Tireless Wireless,” 27.
8 Noah Arceneaux, “A Sales Floor in the Sky: Philadelphia Department Stores and the Radio
Boom of the 1920s,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 53, no. 1 (2009): 76 and 87.
9 Tom Lewis, “A Godlike Presence”: The Impact of Radio on the 1920s and 1930s,” OAH
Magazine of History 6, no.4 (1992): 27.
5
6
67
�Clio: WCSU History Journal
government control.10 Hoover did not do much except grant licenses and
assign specific frequency bands to radio users.11
The more influential commercial companies like the Radio Corporation
of America (RCA) and AT&T’s National Broadcasting System (NBS) were
given the lower frequency, and cheaper bands in the guise of making it easier
for the public to locate their stations and amateur operators were given the
higher numbered and more expensive bands in order to make it more difficult
to continue as amateur operators.12
In 1926, a federal court ruled that Hoover was never given authority
over the airwaves by either President Warren G. Harding or by Congress.
Because of this ruling, broadcasters jumped to whatever frequency they
wanted, and more disputes between amateurs and commercial stations
erupted. Havoc reigned while RCA and AT&T and other large commercial
stations lobbied Congress to pass laws that would end the disputes but give
them preferential treatment.13
The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) had been established in
1926 and was the brainchild of Owen D. Young, board chairman of General
Electric (GE) and Radio Corporation of America (RCA). Fifty percent of its
shares were held by RCA, thirty percent by GE, and twenty percent by
Westinghouse. The company’s original purpose was to stimulate sales of radio
receivers, for which all three corporations held patents.
By the following year, three events influenced the future of radio. NBC
became the first national network with forty stations covering major markets
in twenty-four states linked by telephone lines leased from AT&T.14 The
Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) came into existence with a full news
division and bureaus in major urban centers.15 In addition, Congress created
the Federal Radio Commission, which was given the power to assign
wavelengths and aggressively boot hundreds of small stations off the air to
Arceneaux, “A Sales Floor in the Sky,” 78.
Thompson, “Air Waves,” 44.
12 Blin, “The First Half Century,” 19.
13 Thompson, “Air Waves,” 44.
14 Lewis, “A Godlike Presence,” 27.
15 Alice Goldfarb Marquis, “Written on the Wind: The Impact of Radio During the 1930s,”
Journal of Contemporary History, 19, no. 3 (1984): 386.
10
11
68
�Braucci, History of Radio
produce “clear channels” for the larger firms and where they could broadcast
with no interference. According to Robert McChesney, a media historian, “It
was . . . public policy to create economics that favored the big players. There
were only a handful of channels and only some people were going to get them
and become fabulously wealthy.”16
In 1934, the FRC was renamed to the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC). Its purpose was to regulate transmission and reception of
all communications, internal and external, to grant licenses, and allocate
frequencies. There was no mention of censorship, but indecency, vulgarity,
false or deceptive signals were forbidden.17
Radio defined the twentieth century as much as the automobile. Of all
the new appliances or devices that were bought during the 1920s, none had a
more revolutionary impact than the radio. This was the first modern mass
medium that made America into a land of listeners. It not only entertained
and educated, it delighted and sometimes angered, but more importantly,
radio moved different generations and groups into what seemed to be a
common culture. This new craze encouraged the feeling of intimacy when it
enabled listeners to experience an event as it happened. For example, rather
than waiting and reading about the results of the Harding-Cox presidential
election in 1920 in a newspaper, people witnessed it first with their ears and
imaginations. Broadcasted by Frank Conrad, it is remembered as the first
nationwide broadcast.18
Brisk radio sales were part of the wave of the post-World War I
prosperity that was spreading across the nation. Their sales soared from $60
million in 1922 to $426 million in 1929. By the end of 1923, there were 556
stations in large cities dotting the nation’s map, and an estimated 400,000
households had a radio. Also, in that year’s spring catalog, the Sears Roebuck
Company offered its first line of radios, while Montgomery Ward was
preparing a special 52-page catalog of radio sets and parts.19 In 1927, the most
popular model was the Radiola 17, which cost $157.50 and ran on house
Thompson, “Air Waves,” 44 and 45.
Gugliotta, “Tireless Wireless,” 27.
18 Lewis, “A Godlike Presence,” 26.
19 Lewis, “A Godlike Presence,” 27.
16
17
69
�Clio: WCSU History Journal
current instead of a large battery. Demand for it continually exceeded
production for much of the decade.20
Radio, as a mass media, also knew no geographic boundary and drew
people together as never before. It both molded and mirrored popular culture
with common speech, dress, and social behavior. Soon, people wanted more
of everything—music, talk, comedy, and drama. Radio stations began
broadcasting not only popular music but classical music, not only religious
stories or events but political commentary, and not only lectures but book
talks. Listeners wanted bigger and more powerful sets. They also wanted
greater sound fidelity. The radio console became a necessary piece of
furniture in America’s living rooms.21
By the early thirties, commercials became the standard way of
financing broadcasts. While the commercial sponsors brought the networks
and stations money, these companies were finding new markets across the
country and were growing into nationally known corporations. It was a winwin situation for everyone. Convenience goods, consumed by millions,
became the most popular products to sell, accounting for 86 percent of the
network and 70 percent of the non-network advertisements in 1934.22
Cigarettes (Lucky Strikes and Chesterfields), cigars (There’s no spit in Cremo
cigars!) brands of toothpaste (Ipana and Pepsodent) coffee (Maxwell House
and Chase and Sanborn) and laxatives (Haley’s M-O) proved especially
popular.
For the first time in history, radio meant that one person with a
microphone could speak to many, influence them, and perhaps change or
reinforce their views and prejudices by sowing seeds of information,
propaganda, entertainment, political and religious fervor, culture, and even
hatred across the land during broadcasts. For instance, beginning with the
election of 1928, radio began to have a profound effect on the way politicians
conducted their campaigns. The managers for Herbert Hoover declared that
he planned to campaign “mostly on radio and through the motion pictures.”
Lewis, “A Godlike Presence,” 28.
Alan Douglas, Radio Manufacturers of the 1920s: Volume One (New York: The Vestal
Press, 1988), 27.
22 Lewis, “A Godlike Presence,” 29.
20
21
70
�Braucci, History of Radio
Personal appearances by candidates were being considered a thing of the past.
“Brief statements as to the positions of the (political) parties and candidates
which reach the emotions through the minds of millions of radio listeners, will
play an important part in the race to the White House.”23 In other words,
listeners were not willing to suffer through long and oratorical speeches
anymore; they welcomed the brief pronouncements called sound bites!
From the moment that radio first broadcasted the presidential election
returns in 1920, radio demonstrated its value and advantages as a news
medium. Broadcasting provided an immediacy of dissemination of news
throughout the land without the loss of time involved in print news. Other
advantages associated with radio broadcasting were that the listener received
the news without any cost (besides purchasing a radio) and with a minimum
of effort. Just turn on the radio and turn the dial.24
Beginning in the 1920s, press associations supplied their news directly
to radio networks and also allowed their newspaper subscribers to turn over
their news directly to individual stations. The growth of news programs on
individual stations was also increased when they cooperated with local
newspapers.
However, by 1933 radio broadcasting had grown so successful both as a
news medium and as an advertising medium that press services and
newspaper publishers became fearful of the competition from radio networks.
They not only began to discontinue their news service to radio stations, they
launched political lobbying, an economic boycott, and legal actions to prevent
news from being broadcast on the radio, but it was not enough. A meeting
was called by William S. Paley, President of CBS, in December and held at the
Biltmore Hotel in New York City. It was attended by newspaper publishers,
radio network executives, and wire service representatives. A truce was
reached, and under The Biltmore Agreement, the press associations agreed to
supply the radio networks with five-minute summaries of the news in the late
morning and the late afternoon. In addition, news flashes or bulletins of
Lewis, “A Godlike Presence,” 28.
Theodore C. Streibert and Fulton Lewis, Jr. “Radio as a News Medium,” The Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science, 213 (1941): 54.
23
24
71
�Clio: WCSU History Journal
important news would be immediately available for broadcast when
received.25
However, this agreement did not extend to stations independent of
radio networks and this was a major disadvantage for them until Transradio
Press Service, a news service geared to independent stations, was created and
made publicly available in November of 1934. WOR, a radio station in New
York City, became a major outlet for Transradio. The growing demand from
listeners for more news on the air beyond the twice-a-day, five-minute
broadcasts, and the success of Transradio, forced the International News
Service (INS) and the United Press Association (UPA) in 1935 to resume
service to networks and actively solicit the business of independent stations.
By 1939, the Associated Press decided to make its news services available to
the radio networks for noncommercial and non-sponsored purposes and also
to provide its news to stations for commercial sponsorship by arrangement
with member newspapers of the Associated Press. Therefore, from 1933 to
1939, attempts to block the radio as a news medium failed completely.26
The news made available to radio stations was almost the same news
provided to newspapers by the press services and the delivery of news on the
air resumed with renewed vigor. Some stations that were outside the large
metropolitan centers made an effort to gather local news and add this to the
news from the regular press associations. United Press provided these
stations with a news wire specifically edited for broadcast as distinct from its
newspaper service. Except for stations using Transradio, radio in the 1920s
and 1930s was dependent upon news services that were either controlled by
newspaper publishers or which derived their principal income from
newspapers.27
In addition, specialized news reports from overseas in the late 1930s
began appearing more regularly as tensions mounted in Europe. These direct
news broadcasts were originating from European capitals and were being
presented by Americans such as Edward R. Murrow, a CBS reporter. He was
the first to report the German invasion of Austria in March 1938, and his
Streibert and Lewis, Jr., “Radio as a News Medium,” 54.
Streibert and Lewis, Jr., “Radio as a News Medium,” 55.
27 Streibert and Lewis, Jr., “Radio as a News Medium,” 55.
25
26
72
�Braucci, History of Radio
broadcasts from Europe during World War II cemented his career as a radio
correspondent.28
News broadcasts were not the only type of news radio stations offered.
Radio announcers who reported the news and also provided analysis were
called commentators. This was especially true with sports. Besides supplying
sports news in regular five-minute or fifteen-minute segments late in the
afternoon or early evening hours, they offered highlights of major sporting
events of national and local importance such as baseball, boxing, football,
horse racing, tennis, and track and field meets.
There were no regularly scheduled sports broadcasts, but major events
were covered. For instance, the Jack Dempsey-Georges Carpentier
heavyweight championship bout was broadcasted on July 2, 1921. The first
baseball game broadcast was between the Pirates and the Phillies and was
presented by KDKA Pittsburgh on August 5, 1921. The first World Series
broadcast also came in 1921. Additionally, the first coast-to-coast broadcast
was on January 1, 1927, when the Rose Bowl football game was played in
California.29
Still, when it came to broadcasting an entire event like a major league
baseball game, a boxing match between Joe Lewis and James J. Braddock, or
a prestigious horse race like the Kentucky Derby, owners and promoters were
full of apprehension. For instance, Major League Baseball (MLB) owners
feared that the involvement of radio would reduce park or stadium attendance
and compromise their symbiotic relationship with the newspaper industry.
East Coast and American League teams were anti-radio, while some clubs in
the Midwest, especially the Chicago Cubs, were pro-radio. As a matter of fact,
a few owners saw radio as a positive promotional device that could sell
baseball to new customers. Since games were played during the day, the major
groups in the radio audience were women and children. Besides, as the 1930s
dawned, the Great Depression forced other owners to consider new options
Charles Kuralt, “Edward R. Murrow.” North Carolina Historical Review, 48, no. 2 (1971):
167.
29 Judith S. Baughman, ed. American Decades: 1920-1929, (New York: International
Thomson Publishing Company, 1996), 312.
28
73
�Clio: WCSU History Journal
for replacing revenues lost from declining attendance at games. At the same
time, some sponsors, General Mills in particular, aggressively promoted the
sponsorship of baseball on the radio to sell breakfast cereal to children. By
1935, most owners realized the benefits of live broadcasting and actively
sought commercial sponsors.30
Other forms of specialized services to the radio audience also
developed. A few of these were local weather forecasts, traffic reports, market
updates, and broadcasts designed particularly for farmers.31
During the 1920s and 1930s, it was clear to many that radio was
changing the life of the nation. It was quickly binding the country together as
never before. This electronic technology was unintentionally nationalizing and
transforming “a provincial land consisting of agricultural outposts into a
modern nation woven together by the listening and buying habits of suddenly
connected consumers.”32 Radio was giving people more of a national identity.
They were increasingly referring to themselves as Americans and not
primarily as New Yorkers, Pennsylvanians, or Virginians as they had done
since colonial times. A single event, be it an inauguration, a concert, a sermon,
or a comedy sketch, gave the American people the chance to share in a
common experience. Whether a show originated from Chicago, New York, San
Francisco, or Washington, broadcasts crossed regions or state lines in part
because of the policies of the Federal Communication and Radio Commission
that allowed the establishment of national network programming.33 Radio
allowed listeners no matter where they lived in the nation to be part of the
event.
Through the economic turmoil of the Great Depression, radio was one
of the most important forces keeping the nation together. By the 1930s, radio
had pervaded the consciousness of most Americans, subtly changing the way
they thought and lived. There were over 19 million radio sets. Even though a
quarter of the nation was unemployed, the radio continued to grow in
James R. Walker, “The Baseball-Radio War, 1931-1935.” Journal of Baseball History and
Culture, 19, no. 2 (2011): 53.
31 Streibert and Lewis, Jr., “Radio as a News Medium,” 55 and 56.
32 Michael T. Bertrand, “Out of the Dark: A History of Radio and Rural America.” North
Carolina Historical Review 88, no. 1 (2011): 117.
33 Bertrand, “Out of the Dark,” 117.
30
74
�Braucci, History of Radio
popularity. Social workers found that Americans would sooner sell every
appliance or piece of furniture than part with their radio. It connected them to
the world and it was cheap entertainment during a time when it was
extremely important to have some relief from economic woes. They did not
feel as isolated as they once did; they felt a part of the nation’s fabric.34
However, this feeling of unity was not felt in all regions of the country.
According to the 1930 U.S. Census, a majority of white households and only a
small number of African- American households in the Northeast and Midwest
were radio-equipped. In the nation’s poorer regions, this was not true for
residents in rural areas in the West and African-Americans in the South.35 It
was not just poverty that slowed the acquisition of radios; it was the lack of
electric lines yet to be installed in these areas.36 As a matter of fact, there was
a smaller number of radio stations in these areas than in the Northern and
Midwest urban areas. In 1928, Atlanta had only three radio stations, New
Orleans only had seven, and several large rural states had fewer than six radio
stations.37
Initially, broadcasters faced two challenges. The first was to convince
audiences that radio listening as a leisure activity had value. Listening to the
radio was not only pleasurable, but it could also be productive and
educational. The second challenge was to create entertainment that audiences
would tune into and for which sponsors would be willing to place their
product or service advertisements.38
However, one of the problems that faced programmers had to do with
gender. Besides music and news, what other types of day programs would
women primarily be interested in while they cooked and cleaned their homes?
Programmers came up with a new genre of programming known as the
episodic drama or as it is more popularly known as the “soap opera.” This type
of show appealed to women’s interests and also showcased beauty products
Lewis, “A Godlike Presence,” 29.
Steven Craig. “How America Adopted Radio: Demographic Differences in Set Ownership
Reported in the 1930-1950 U.S. Censuses,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 48,
no.2 (2004): 179.
36 Craig, “How America Adopted Radio,” 189.
37 Craig, “How America Adopted Radio,” 179.
38 Lippmann, “Boys to Men,” 658.
34
35
75
�Clio: WCSU History Journal
and home-goods retailers. By 1933, there were twelve soap opera programs,
including the classic Ma Perkins. By 1935, there were nineteen, and two years
later, there were thirty-one, among them John’s Other Wife.39
Another problem was the fact that radio programs, reflecting societal
norms, did its share to reinforce racial stereotypes like Italian gangsters,
Jewish spend-thrifts, and African-American slow wittedness. Almost all of
the radio stations aimed their broadcasts at white audiences. This occurred
during the peak of the “Great Migration” of African-Americans from the rural
South to the urban centers in the North and Midwest, where radio was
concentrated.40
Less than 25 percent of radio stations were independent and to attract
an audience, these stations specialized in programming that was not offered
by the four major networks—NBC, CBS, ABC, and Mutual Radio.41 Residents
in different parts of the country had different music preferences. Depending
on the region, one could hear a preponderance of jazz, country music, or
gospel. For example, the South displayed a cultural distinction in its
concentration of gospel radio stations. New Englanders did not favor country
music to the same degree as Southerners and Westerners. Also, Westerners
appeared to shun religious broadcasts.42
There was a time when the voices of African Americans could barely be
heard over America’s airwaves. One of these independent stations was WDIA
in Memphis, Tennessee. It was one of the first radio stations in the United
States to develop programming by African Americans for African-Americans.
Since the 1920s, African Americans have been involved in the development of
popular music in night clubs, on records, and in radio studios, but the same
could not be said of drama, comedy, news, quiz, and variety shows. Black
characters, whether portrayed by black or white actors, were stereotyped as
butlers, maids, or buffoons. According to its records, no radio station ever
assembled a more diverse and talented cadre of black disc jockeys and
Marquis, “Written on the Wind,” 405.
Lippmann, “Boys to Men,” 659.
41 George T. Wilson, “When Memphis Made Radio History,” American Visions Magazine 8,
no.4 (1993): 24.
42 J. O. Joby Bass, ”The Geographic Diversity of Radio Formats Across the U.S.,” American
Geographical Society’s Focus on Geography 53, no. 4 (2010): 148.
39
40
76
�Braucci, History of Radio
entertainers. A typical weekly schedule was as follows: a collage of black adult
music of current favorites were broadcasted from Monday to Friday; the Blues
were played on Saturday, and Gospel music was played on Sunday.43
However, most companies feared that they would alienate their white
customers if they advertised their products with programming aimed at
African Americans. Nevertheless, the ever-soaring ratings confirmed that
there was an audience for these music styles, and immigrant and African
American entrepreneurs took notice, saw their sales rise, and continued to
sponsor WDIA.44
Finally, a history of radio during the 1920s and 1930s would be
incomplete without mentioning a few of the classic programs and entertainers
whose performances were broadcasted nationwide. As Vaudeville theaters
and shows were closing due to the dwindling audiences during the Great
Depression, radio offered new opportunities for performers. Eddie Cantor, the
Marx Brothers, Jack Benny, George Burns, and Gracie Allen, and Ed Wynn
successfully made the transition to the new medium.
But the most popular program that brought the most laughs was the
Amos ‘n Andy show that NBC broadcasted at 7:00 each weekday evening.
Charles Correll and Freeman Gosden were white song-and-chatter performers
in minstrel shows who were hired in 1926 by the WGN station in Chicago to
perform a ten-minute show about Sam ‘n Henry, two Southern black men
who had moved to Chicago. Described as a “radio comic strip,” it was the first
radio program with a continuing storyline. Before this, every broadcast was
expected to complete its narrative.
The show was a success from the start, but in 1928, WMAG, also in
Chicago, hired the comedy duo away. However, because WGN retained the
rights to the Sam ‘n Henry characters, Correll and Gosden created Amos
Jones and Andrew H. Brown, two residents of Harlem. Amos ‘n Andy was
now broadcast six nights a week in fifteen-minute installments.45 The effect
of the show was unique. Restaurants and movie theaters found that they had
to broadcast the show over loudspeakers if they were to keep their customers.
Wilson, “When Memphis Made Radio History,” 23.
Wilson, “When Memphis Made Radio History,” 25.
45 Baughman, ed. American Decades: 1920 – 1929, 317 - 318
43
44
77
�Clio: WCSU History Journal
President Calvin Coolidge let it be known that he was not to be disturbed in
the evening when this program was on the air.46 By 1933, they earned
$100,000 from NBC. This was more than Babe Ruth; more than the President
of NBC; indeed, more than the President of the United States.47 By the way,
in the era of blackface entertainment, there were no protests against the
material of Amos ‘n Andy until decades later.
Other long-running programs that originated in the 1920s and 1930s.
For country music fans, the Grand Ole Opry began in 1925 and featured
music from WSM in Nashville. After all these decades, it is still going strong
on Saturday nights. The longest-running serial, The Rise of the Goldbergs,
began on NBC in 1929. It was the first major Jewish comedy on radio and was
still running a quarter of a century later on television.48 Finally, there was the
CBS early morning program, Arthur Godfrey Time. It was known for its talk,
variety, and music. Godfrey progressed from a one-night stand in 1937 to
becoming a top network star who was the most powerful man in broadcasting.
CBS estimated that he was heard by 40 million people a week.
Furthermore, the most striking statistic of all was the sales of Chesterfields
and Lipton Tea that soared during their sponsorship of this show. Time
magazine stated, “He is the greatest salesman who ever stood before a
microphone.” His different variations of the show lasted until 1972 on
television.49
Then there are the musicians, singers, and comedians who became
famous because of exposure on the radio during the 1930s. Band leaders such
as Artie Shaw formed one of the best swing bands. Benny Goodman had an
innovative hot swing on the cutting edge of popular music. And of course,
there was Glenn Miller, who was the epitome of the big bands.50 The Kate
Smith Show was a musical variety program that was broadcasted from 1931 to
1947. She had a powerful contralto voice and Time magazine nicknamed her
“the first lady of radio.” Besides, she and Jack Benny had the only contracts in
Tom Lewis, “A Godlike Presence,” 33.
Tom Lewis, “A Godlike Presence,” 29.
48 Baughman, ed. American Decades: 1920 – 1929, 314.
49 John Dunning, On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio. (New York: Oxford Press,
1998) 43.
50 Dunning, On the Air, 65 and 67.
46
47
78
�Braucci, History of Radio
radio that could not be canceled. Another fact is that Abbott and Costello were
launched as radio and film stars because of their two-year run on the Kate
Smith Show.51 Another performer was Bing Crosby, who was a major star by
1935 when he took over as host of The Kraft Music Hall, a variety show, and
stayed ten years while working at his recording and movie careers.52 Finally,
Bob Hope became a radio headliner after a long career on the vaudeville stage.
Like Crosby, Hope came to radio early and stayed late. He shared with Crosby
an ability with words, a glibness, and keen intelligence. After being a guest on
some of radio’s most popular variety shows, Hope was offered his own halfhour comedy series in the fall of 1938. The Pepsodent Show quickly became a
Tuesday night giant on NBC.53
Radio’s Golden Age was a remarkable time. Radio changed how
information was spread from print to electronic media. It changed and
validated leisure time. It allowed people to experience a broadcast event
simultaneously, no matter where they lived. But most important, radio helped
create a more unified and unique “American” culture!
Dunning, On the Air, 382-383.
Dunning, On the Air, 91.
53 Dunning, On the Air, 106.
51
52
79
�
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Geisha
Amanda Bria
Geisha have enchanted both Japanese and foreigners alike for centuries. With
their unique beauty and exceptional skills in the arts, they are difficult to overlook. In the
west, geisha rival Mount Fuji and the bullet train as the most recognizable emblem of
Japan. Despite their widespread appeal, true understanding of what it means to be a
geisha remains elusive for the majority of westerners. The Japanese and American
perception of what a geisha is and what they actually do remain two very different
entities. The geisha'S similar physical appearance to courtesans, the Japanese sensitivity
over the subject of geisha, the fabricated bitterness between geisha and wives and the
exaggeration of their complete servility to men all strengthened the western belief that
they are prostitutes. This misunderstanding
of geisha was only further reinforced
following World War II, with American GIs bringing home tales of steamy encounters
with "geesha girls." Ever since the Second World War, Americans tend to view geisha as
primarily sexual or erotic beings, while the Japanese view them as representations of their
rich past and culture.
The word geisha translated into English means artist. Thus, a geisha is a woman
trained in all of the traditional Japanese arts for the entertainment of men. A geisha must
study such subjects as dancing, singing, flower arranging, poetry, tea ceremony,
traditional Japanese instruments and conversation.'
To excel in her career, a geisha must
train in all of the traditional arts indefinitely; a level of perfection simply does not exist in
the eyes of a geisha.'
Geisha daily life consists of making appearances at private parties
held in ochaya or teahouses. They also participate regularly in public dance performances
7
�and festivals. A geisha party is most usually only attended by men because of the erotic
element in the atmosphere present at a gathering involving geisha.' However, women
may attend the dance performances or festivals they participate in." A geisha is always
expected to liven up the atmosphere of a dull party, even if the men she is entertaining are
intolerably dull. It is a geisha's duty to see to it that everyone enjoys themselves in her
company.
Geisha are so often confused with courtesans because of their comparable
appearance to each other to the untrained eye. If one were to have a geisha stand next to
someone dressed as a courtesan, most Americans would likely have difficultly
distinguishing which was which. However, any similarity that exists between geisha and
courtesans is merely skin-deep. Upon examining the history of the geisha, the differences
between geisha and courtesans become much more pronounced.
It may surprise many Americans that the very first geisha were actually men.
Geisha were originally court-jester types that would dress up and dance and play
instruments to entertain at parties.' The very first female geisha emerged soon after the
male geisha came into being. The first female geisha was originally a courtesan from the
eighteenth century whose number of clients was rapidly declining." Nevertheless; she
remained determined and came up with the idea of becoming a female geisha. She took to
practicing singing and dancing and started calling herself a geisha. Men became intrigued
by this idea and her number of clients started to rise.
Female geisha began to rise in number and stature. They were famous for selling
their skills rather than sex. In no time, geisha began to grow in popularity and started to
overshadow the courtesans. To further prove the difference existing between geisha and
courtesans, there always existed a strong rivalry between the two. In a way, it is ironic
8
�that Americans often label geisha merely as prostitutes, when historically they were
initially defined as totally different women than courtesans.
Differences in terms of cost also noticeably distinguished geisha from courtesans
and prostitutes. Due to the fact that geisha are such extensively-trained professionals, the
amount of money to be paid in order to be in the company of a geisha is extraordinarily
high; much higher than that of a prostitute.' This fact may surprise many foreigners who
previously thought paying for sex would be much more costly than to pay for the
company of a highly-trained woman of the arts.
It must also be noted that the steep price one must pay to win the privilege of a
geisha's company does not include the promise of sexual intercourse. If a man hires a
geisha, what he is purchasing is her skills in the arts for the evening and to be in the
presence of her wit and beauty. Despite this, there is a certain sexual element in the
atmosphere at any gathering involving geisha. It is, however, subtle such as flirting or
crude jokes; Japanese men know not to expect anything more.f
Japanese and foreign men both find geisha to be endlessly appealing, but there
are some that wonder what exactly makes them so appealing. Shuko, a geisha from the
Simbashi district, was actually asked what makes her and her comrades so enticing.
Shuko replied that a geisha'S requirements made them universally appealing: "First, to be
beautiful, but not too beautiful. Next, to be able to hold one's drink, but never get drunk.
Third, to devote oneself to one's art. Fourth, to be good at talking, but better at
listening.?" Shuko confided that this was her secret to excelling in the art of conversation.
In addition to these admirable qualities, a geisha must have a pristine reputation
throughout the geisha community. Unlike a prostitute or courtesan, one's reputation and
9
�prudence was vital. If a geisha was known for being promiscuous, business would decline
drastically until she had no source of income at all."
According to the classic anthropological study, The Chrysanthemum and the
Sword (1989), when Americans first came into contact with the geisha at the dawn of the
twentieth century, they were quite shocked by their practices and traditions. The geisha
caused Americans much confusion, because the only component in American culture
they felt comfortable comparing them to was to prostitutes.
II
Obviously, the Americans
could not comprehend the true nature of the geisha in the context of Japanese Culture.
The Japanese became offended and defensive on this issue; which further proved them to
be prostitutes in many Americans' eyes. The American assumption could not have been
more inaccurate.
The Japanese have always been very anxious about how outsiders view their
culture and way of life, especially westerners.
12
Ever since Commodore Matthew Perry
first arrived in Japan to negotiate its opening to America in 1853, Americans have been
quite critical of Japanese Culture and practices; this has never been truer than with the
American opinion of geisha. The geisha subculture may be comparatively small in the
context of Japanese Culture, but it is extraordinarily complex and has been a part of
Japanese Culture for the past 400 years.
13
So for westerners to belittle their valued
tradition as nothing but glorified commercial sex is an outrage. Geisha represent all the
best of the traditional Japanese arts as well as Japan's exquisite past and culture; to insult
geisha culture is to insult Japanese culture. So, the Japanese were offended and defensive
not because geisha were truly prostitutes, they were frustrated because westerners did not
understand their important tradition.
10
�The manner in which Americans view the entertainment a geisha provides says a
great deal about how they perceive geisha themselves. In the past, some Americans have
found the amusement of geisha parties quite bewildering. The songs and dances a geisha
usually performs differ quite drastically from those in the west. Americans are not quite
sure how to regard such dances and songs because they are uniquely Japanese.
14
The
dances performed by a geisha are meant to be enticing to men in a way some Americans
had not previously anticipated. With pre-conceived notions of a geisha being almost
synonymous with a prostitute, perhaps they were expecting the eroticism and sexuality of
the evening to be more pronounced and flamboyant than it really was.
As can be expected, a Japanese man's perspective of a geisha party is quite
different from that of an American. Japanese men have the benefit of being immersed in
an environment that is comfortable and familiar to them. A geisha party reflects their own
culture and thus, they can relax and enjoy themselves. These types of parties are often
frequented by Japanese businessmen who wish to unwind with co-workers and friends. A
geisha party promises to be a stress-free environment where businessmen and politicians
can let loose and say whatever is on their minds.
IS
Japanese men know whatever they
choose to say in the presence ofa geisha will not be repeated elsewhere. Japanese men
already know what to expect from geisha parties and have no misconceptions about them
like their American counterparts. Japanese men may expect some flirting from the
evening; however Americans often assume more scandalous events occur.
One of the many existing western misconceptions of geisha is that they are all
young and beautiful. After all, if geisha were truly prostitutes as Americans believed,
they would have to be young and beautiful to order to lure clients. Both of these western
assumptions are false. While many geisha begin their careers when they are young and
beautiful, a geisha's career does not necessarily end with her youth. Some geisha have
11
�been known to carry on with their careers well into their sixties. 16 In the documentary,
The Secret Life of Geisha (1999), a geisha named Yumi is interviewed. Yumi confides
that she is ninety-three years old and still entertains as a geisha. Older geisha are no less
active in the geisha community, and are actually paid more because of their many years
of study and practice in their trade. 17
The matter of commercial sex is the single most controversial component in
geisha history and culture. Even in this modem age, when vast amounts of information is
readily available, so many Americans today still believe geisha to be little more than
handsomely-attired
prostitutes. Most westerners also think that geisha are also trained in
sex; this could not be further from the truth. Full-fledged geisha, known in Kyoto as
geiko, often take on a maiko (meaning: apprentice geisha, literally translated as: dancing
child) as a sort of adopted "younger sister" or apprentice. The geiko advise the young,
aspiring geisha on a daily basis; the maiko learns everything there is to know about
becoming a geisha from observing her "older sister.,,18
The only topic in which the geiko confides very little information (if any at all) to
the maiko, is regarding the nature of sex. Even in the past, when the ritual deflowering
ceremony of mizuage was practiced, the most geiko usually told their apprentices about
how to behave in the ceremony was to "lie still." 19This, naturally, resulted in countless
maiko who were totally unprepared mentally in terms of what to expect from the mizuage
ceremony. Thus, not only are geisha not trained at all in sexual intercourse, but many
young maiko had no idea whatsoever how to behave or what was to take place.
Before the anti -prostitution laws went into effect in 1957, most geisha used to
partake in the mizuage ceremony. Mizuage is a term that traditionally referred to the
virginity of an apprentice geisha. If a maiko already had a danna (patron), he would have
12
�the honor of taking her mizuage." If the geisha did not already have a danna, her
mizuage would go up for auction and be sold to the highest bidder. Naturally, the
traditional concept of mizuage was quite appalling to Americans; however one must
understand the mizuage tradition in the context of Japanese Culture. A woman is a not
considered a woman if she is still a virgin, thus mizuage was also a gateway to
womanhood."
After 1957, mizuage had nothing to do with a young geisha's virginity.
Ever since the anti-prostitution laws, mizuage was simply a celebration of passage from
maiko to geiko.
The concept of a danna in geisha culture is misunderstood by westerners and
continues to reinforce their beliefs that geisha are nothing more than glorified courtesans.
Danna is the traditional Japanese word for husband, but a danna was not a geisha's literal
husband. A geisha would be considered fortunate if a man expressed interest in becoming
her danna. This meant he would cover all her expenses which included buying her new
kimono regularly and paying for all her lessons. In the past, a geisha would become her
danna's mistress in return for his generosity. Still, this did not make geisha at all similar
to prostitutes. A prostitute may have relations with a different man every night, but a
geisha would be true to her danna and only have relations with him. 22
To be the danna of a lovely, young geisha was a major status symbol right up
until World War II. Although government-licensed
prostitution was a part of Japanese
society since 1600, a law was passed outlawing it in 1957.23 Thus, after that year, geisha
were no longer required to have sexual relationships were their danna. The geisha of
today have complete command over whom they engage in intercourse with and when;
though they would take care not to flaunt such relationships and keep them low-key.
13
�Especially during World War II, some Americans believed geisha promoted
infidelity and immorality." Much of the time, a geisha's danna would already be married
to another woman. Historically, marriage and romantic love were viewed as two separate
entities in Japanese Culture; very seldom were they one and the same." A marriage was
between two respectable Japanese families not two people hopelessly in love. For this
reason, most Japanese men sought mistresses for sexual and sometimes loving
relationships. This really has nothing to do with geisha; if a man could not afford
becoming a geisha's danna, he would likely seek a mistress elsewhere.
Foreigners often assume there was an abundance of rivalry and competition
between geisha and wives; which, if it were true, could support their thesis that geisha are
prostitutes. Interestingly enough, any true altercations between geisha and wives were
actually quite rare." Wives would actually feel more threatened by the idea that their
husband might have an affair with a bar hostess or a secretary; a geisha would prove a far
more comfortable option for them." This is because the wife's role was not threatened by
a geisha mistress. Particularly in the past, a Japanese wife's primary domain was the
domestic home, serving her husband and bearing and raising children. Although the role
of a Japanese wife may be currently evolving the role of a geisha remains unaltered. A
geisha's domain is the social sphere: she is meant to entertain and socialize with men, but
by no means is she a wife or mother. Thus, either side rarely felt threatened by the other
because the roles of geisha and wives were clearly defined and hardly ever overlapped
one and other.
In the documentary, The Secret Life of Geisha (1999), a modem geisha client and
his wife are interviewed. The wife divulges that she would not be happy if she found out
her husband had an affair with any ordinary Japanese woman, but that she would not
mind if he had an affair with a geisha. She actually said that if her husband had an affair
14
�with a geisha, she would consider it as "an honor.,,28 When the woman's husband heard
this statement, he simply chuckled awkwardly in response.
Although all Japanese women were not as enthusiastic about their husbands
visiting geisha so often, rather cordial relationships existed between geisha and wives.
The book, Geisha (1998) by Liza Dalby (the only non-Japanese or American to ever truly
become a geisha) talks of a girl named Yuriko, whose father was a highly-respected
geisha client. While she was growing up, geisha would visit Yuriko's home a few times a
year. The geisha would always bring gifts, not for Yuriko's father, but for her mother.
While giving the gifts to the wife of their frequent client they would say something like:
"Thank you for your husband's business throughout the year.,,29 To which to wife might
reply: "I am indebted to you for taking care of things for me so well.,,3o Apparently, this
interaction and gift-giving ceremony was not at all abnormal; at two separate occasions
every year geisha would normally go to all their most valued costumers' houses to deliver
gifts and thanks.
Perhaps astonishing to Americans and the rest of the western world, on such a
meeting as this one, the wife would act respectfully to the geisha in question, and she
would treat them as she would any of her husband's professional colleagues. The wife
would always be certain to thank the geisha for assisting her by helping her husband
socialize and have a pleasant time while unwinding. Dalby (who has an interesting
viewpoint, as she is at once American and a former geisha) describes it beautifully as a
"feminine division of labor, where neither side need be jealous because one identity does
not overlap with the other.?"
Although most Japanese women have accepted the fact that their men find
pleasure in visiting geisha; and hence spending time with other women, most American
15
�wives would not look favorably upon such an arrangement. An American wife would
likely feel hurt, frustrated or threatened by such a situation. The most obvious difference
between the American and Japanese perspective is that in American society, wives are
expected to accompany their husbands in social situations. Husbands and wives are also
expected to receive sexual satisfaction from each other in the western world. In Japan, not
only did wives never accompany their men to outings with colleagues, but their sexual
relationship was one primarily for the procreation of children and not personal
satisfaction."
Even in modem Japan, wives and husbands who socialize together are not
very common nor are "love matches" necessarily the majority of Japanese marriages.
33
This glaringly important difference makes the American and Japanese perspective on the
husband's relationships with geisha entirely different.
Though it may shock some westerners, if one examines the geisha community
there is a certain amount of feminism to be found there within. It is true that up until
World War II, many women did not truly choose the geisha profession but rather picked
it from among their few options. Some young girls had no other option available to them
and became a geisha from necessity. Young girls that trained to become geisha before the
Second World War were mainly from very poor families who needed fewer mouths to
feed. If a family could not afford to support all of their children, they would likely send a
daughter (or sometimes more than one) to Tokyo or Kyoto to make a living as a geisha.
34
It was most common that these girls would never see their families again after becoming
geisha. These poor, young girls would work very hard to be the best at dancing and
singing, because if they failed as a geisha they had nowhere else to go.
Despite their humble and unfortunate beginnings, geisha had many opportunities
which other Japanese women did not. Geisha were never permitted to marry, but then
again they never had to worry about being a housewife either. Geisha were permitted to
16
�study such subjects as literature, poetry and current events so they could easily converse
with clients. Geisha had access to lessons in these, as well as all the traditional arts, for
the entirety of their geisha career. In contrast, most other Japanese women at the time
were not expected to be very educated at all; let alone witty and knowledgeable.
The very fact that a geisha was allowed to socialize with men is something to
boast about. It would be seen as very strange if a man decided to bring his wife along to
an evening out with fellow businessmen or prospective clients. Alternatively, geisha are
not at all out of place at such a gathering and are most frequently the life of the party.
Here, Japanese men feel that they can let loose and be themselves, even in the presence of
the geisha. However, if they were in the presence of other Japanese women, they would
choose to exhibit a different and more formal demeanor." Geisha were allowed to freely
flirt and make crude jokes with men which is also unique among Japanese women. If an
ordinary Japanese woman did this she would likely be thought of as peculiar or indecent.
A geisha also makes her own income which was entirely unique among Japanese
women prior to World War II. After they have paid back all their debts (for kimono,
lessons, etc.) in full to their okiya or geisha house, they are allowed to keep most of their
own wages. A geisha who is earning money for herself still must give some of their
earnings to their okiya for their sponsoring of said geisha." The most successful geisha
have enough finances to be able to move out of their geisha house and into their own
apartments; they are able to afford every luxury for themselves. This may not seem like
complete financial independence for women in the modem western sense, but this is far
more self-reliance than most Japanese women could boast prior to World War II.
The hanamachi or "flower-towns"
in which a geisha worked were also entirely
operated by women." Although a geisha's clients would be entirely male, a "geisha
17
�mother" would be in charge of her geisha house and make all of the most important
decisions for the geisha under her roof. Much of the time, the "geisha mother" was a
former geisha herself and had inherited the okiya; her role then would be leader and
advisor of the geisha and to help them become as prestigious as possible. No males would
ever be permitted to live in a geisha house or ever make any important decisions on
behalf of the geisha. This may not seem like feminism or independence in the modem
sense, but women who were geisha had arguably the most opportunities available to them
and freedoms among Japanese women up until World War II. Today, geisha have even
more independence and freedom.
One might attempt to rebuke all these claims of feminism and independence by
falsely arguing that geisha are completely servile to men and their needs. After all, if a
westerner believes geisha to be entirely subservient and submissive, then they would
naturally overlook the feminism and independence that exists in the hanamachi.
However, the idea of a geisha which is entirely servile and slavish to men is an utter
fabrication devised and misconceived by westerners. Neither are geisha fancily-dressed
waitresses as some westerners suppose. The most actual serving a geisha will do for a
client is to pour him a cup of sake or tea. However, this action is a ceremonial act, not an
act of necessity." Part of the tea ceremony would also call for the client reciprocating the
action by pouring the geisha a cup of sake or tea in return.
Geisha do not treat their clients as a humble servant would obey her or his
master, but rather as a hostess treats her honored guests. A geisha's costumers would be
referred to the entire evening as okyakusama, meaning honored guest. 39 In any situation,
a host's main objective is to make his or her guests feel at ease and in good humor, which
is precisely what a geisha does. A geisha is also expected to use her own wit, creativity
and individuality to socialize and entertain; this would be impossible if a geisha were
18
�truly meant to remain completely obedient and servile. Interactions between geisha and
their guests demonstrate complete respect from both sides.
During World War II, a vast majority of Americans viewed the Japanese as an
enemy that was at once harsh and mysterious. Americans did not truly understand
Japanese Culture and their tactics in warfare. With the Japanese bombing in Pearl Harbor,
it showed that Japan was unafraid to attack and were utterly unpredictable; which was
very frightening for young American men fighting in the war. The American GIs were
young and largely inexperienced with death and despair. If the psychological elements of
warfare did not lower the men's spirits there were always physical ailments to be had
such as diseases and dysentery. The brutality of war caused many of them to turn to more
comfortable diversions such as alcohol, drugs and especially women.
Even before the young American GIs had arrived in the Pacific, they had already
heard tantalizing stories about women and sexuality in the Far East. American GIs heard
plentiful rumors and myths about Asian women who were at once amazingly gorgeous
and liberal with their sexuality. There was a text circulated on Yap Island entitled: The
Guide to the Western Pacific, in which it stated: "the sex lives of the natives have always
been somewhat loose according to American standards.?"
Thus, young American GIs
arrived in the Pacific with pre-conceived notions about Asian women and how they
would behave; this likely contributed to the misunderstanding of the geisha and their
profession.
The 1945 Guide to Japan attempted to enlighten those who remained mystified
about the true nature of a geisha. The guide described a geisha of having little similarity
to prostitutes. Geisha were defined in the text as "a highly-trained entertainer whose
business in life is to make men happy.'?" Obviously, not all young American men in
19
�Japan read this at the time and still took the geisha to be prostitutes. Even so, it remains
unclear if the men who read this guide actually fathomed what type of entertainment was
meant in order to "make men happy." The young, eager American boys may still have
supposed that some sort of sexual encounter was still likely. Nevertheless, the description
provided them still sounded fabulous to many American GIs and geisha were among the
Asian women that they were most interested in and anxious to meet.
A great majority of the American misconceptions of geisha were founded during
and immediately following the Second World War. Upon returning home, American GIs
often told scintillating stories about "geesha girls" they had encountered and had relations
with. Prostitution has been linked with Japanese history for centuries and the time of the
Second World War was a time of mass prostitution."
Countless Japanese prostitutes
dressed themselves up as geisha in order to receive more clients. These prostitutes called
themselves geisha, because they knew it was a term the GIs had heard before even if they
did not truly understand it.
Young, lustful American GIs could not tell the difference between geisha and
prostitutes; though they would not likely care too much to know the difference. Due to
the many flings between American GIs and prostitutes masquerading as geisha, geisha
began to carry the significance of a woman of low morality and abundant promiscuity in
the western world. This unfortunate miscalculation still thrives in the American mindset
today.
Unlike the inexperienced American GIs, men of higher ranking were aware that
the women their young men were fraternizing with were not actually geisha. Geisha were
extraordinarily exclusive and only men of power and prosperity could afford the means
of accompanying a geisha at any rate. A geisha was simply beyond the reach and price of
20
�the young American men fighting for their country. One geisha was quoted as saying:
"Right after the War, we had lots of foreigners coming. The geisha refused to sleep with
foreigners.?" On the other hand, officers and other high-ranking officials were much
more likely to be granted the privilege of attending a geisha party. These privileged few
were able to truly experience the company of a geisha and brought home the only
credible stories of interactions with geisha."
Although Americans often overemphasize the eroticism and sexuality of the
geisha, this does not mean that geisha themselves are completely devoid of these
qualities. The geisha community is known as the karyukai, meaning the Flower and
Willow World.45 This name has great meaning: the flower represents eroticism and the
willow represents gracefulness. Hence, a true geisha must embody both of these entities
simultaneously and flawlessly. However, geisha must be erotic and sensual in a more
subdued and subtle fashion than Japanese courtesans or prostitutes.
In addition, an abundance of eroticism can be found in the very appearance of a
maiko. As an apprentice geisha, a maiko must rely much more on her beauty and physical
attractiveness than a full geisha would. At this point in her geisha career, a maiko has not
yet mastered all of her required skills and so they are more lavishly attired to make up for
it." A maiko is considered to be the quintessential image of traditional Japanese
femininity.
A maiko has her face painted white and her lips accentuated with a deep red. The
hair of a maiko is done up elaborately so the nape of the neck is left exposed. The neck is
painted white also, except a maiko must leave two or three thin stripes of skin unpainted
and exposed to tantalize men. In the same manner legs or cleavage are regarded in
western culture; the neck is thought to be extremely erotic and beautiful in Japan."
21
�Naturally, geisha posses a certain amount of sexuality in Japanese culture as well;
however it is far less ostentatious than westerners believe.
When one usually refers to a geisha, one usually is pertaining to the highlyesteemed and refined geisha of Kyoto or Tokyo; however there is another less commonly
mentioned type of geisha with a questionable reputation: the onsen geisha. Kyoto and
Tokyo geisha are known to be respectable and reputable amongst the Japanese
population, the onsen geisha's reputation is not nearly as pristine. Around the time of
World War II was when the term onsen geisha began to carry such negative connotations.
It seemed common knowledge to most that the term onsen geisha was nearly
synonymous with prostitute.
The onsen geisha dwell only in the famous hot-springs resorts of Japan, such as
Atarni. In the past, onsen geisha placed little emphasis on the arts and more emphasis on
pleasing men sexually. While, an evening with a Kyoto or Tokyo geisha does not include
sexual relations; with an onsen geisha it was almost always expected." Nevertheless, it
remains unclear if all onsen geisha who worked in hot-springs resorts were of such low
stature or if it was simply exaggerated. It is possible, that there was an overabundance of
prostitutes in these towns marketing themselves as geisha. Despite this, there are many
accounts of the seedy and scandalous events which occurred at onsen geisha parties
during this era.
Sayo Masuda (b. 1925) was an onsen geisha who wrote down her tragic life in
Autobiography of a Geisha (1957). In her shocking tale, she explains how she was trained
in the art of sexuality and how her virginity was sold on four separate occasions."
Masuda was not rigorously-educated
Sayo
like the true geisha of Tokyo and Kyoto; she only
learned to write hiragana script (Japanese) in her late twenties.
22
50
After her time as an
�onsen geisha, she turned to prostitution for a time, and frankly; there appears to be little
difference between the two professions. As an onsen geisha, Sayo Masuda was virtually a
sex-slave in pre-World War II Japan.
However tragic and unsettling Sayo Masuda's experiences were, it must be
understood that onsen geisha and the artistically-talented geisha of Tokyo and Kyoto are
two entirely different beings that have nothing to do with each other. During the era
surrounding World War II, a geisha from Kyoto or Tokyo would be absolutely horrified
and insulted if she were compared to the onsen geisha." An onsen geisha during this
point in history would likely have only the most rudimentary skills in dancing, singing
and instrument-playing.
It would be far more profitable for onsen geisha to excel in the
art of seduction. A true Kyoto or Tokyo geisha is famous for selling their skills, rather
than their bodies. However, in many Japanese hot-springs resorts during World War II,
the opposite seemed to be true for many onsen geisha.
Onsen geisha still exist today, though their role has changed significantly.
Although the entertainment an onsen geisha provides is said to be more vulgar, seedy and
in poorer taste than a geisha party hosted by Kyoto or Tokyo geisha, they are no longer
considered to be the equivalent of prostitutes. However, they still do not have nearly the
amount of expertise and education as the geisha of Kyoto or Tokyo. Their skills still
remain rather basic and the onsen geisha seem to rely more on vulgarity and cheap thrills
to entertain clients. Today, onsen geisha entertain tourists in large banquet halls in hotels,
as many as sixty or seventy onsen geisha may be present at any given time. 52 This tactic
of entertaining is unheard of in regards to the geisha districts of Kyoto and Tokyo.
The iconic geisha are endlessly appealing to the Japanese as well as Americans,
but they each clearly regard them in different ways. Westerners have put too much focus
23
�on the sensuality and erotic nature of the geisha and tend to overlook everything but their
physical beauty. Meanwhile, the Japanese realize their geisha are beautiful, but are much
more intrigued by what the geisha have to offer in terms of their arts and skills. Having
nothing similar in their own culture, Americans have difficulty fully comprehending that
geisha are not prostitutes or courtesans. The geisha'S similar physical appearance to
courtesans, the Japanese sensitivity over the subject of geisha, the fabricated bitterness
between geisha and wives and the exaggeration of their complete servility to men all
strengthened western misconceptions about them. American GIs who served in the
Pacific during World War II only reinforced the false American interpretation of the
geisha. To this day, Americans have difficulty seeing the rigorously-trained professional
artists behind the painted face and red lips.
Endnotes
'John Gallagher, Geisha: A Unique World a/Tradition, Elegance and Art (New York:
Sterling Publishing Co., Inc, 2003), 56.
2Mineko Iwasaki, Geisha, A Life (New York: Washington Square Press, 2003), 32.
3Lesley Downer, Women a/the Pleasure Quarters: The Secret History a/the Geisha
(New York: Broadway Books, 2002), 123.
"Downer, 123.
5Downer, 43.
6Downer, 45.
-Kyoko Aihara, Geisha: A Living Tradition (London: Carlton Books Limited, 1999),45.
8Gallagher, 53.
9Downer, 233.
IOGallagher, 22.
llRuth Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns 0/ Japanese Culture (New
York: Mariner, 1989), 184.
12Benedict, 187.
13 ihara, 21.
A
14Gallagher, 13.
15Gallagher, 14.
16Iwasaki, 216.
17Iwasaki,217.
18Aihara, 19.
19The Secret Life a/Geisha, DVD, (1999; A&E Television Networks, 2005).
2°Gallagher, 39.
24
�21
Benedict, 202.
22Downer, 88.
23Downer, 31.
24Gail Lee Bernstein, Recreating Japanese Women, 1600-1945 (Los Angeles: University
of California Press, 1991), 68.
25Benedict, 137.
26Liza Dalby, Geisha (Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1998),
167.
27Dalby, 168.
28The Secret Life of Geisha, 1999.
29Dalby, 169.
30Dalby, 169.
3lDalby, 171.
32Benedict, 179.
33Benedict, 183.
34Gallagher, 29.
35Benedict, 190.
36
Aihara, 26.
37Dalby, 158.
38Dalby, 173.
39Dalby, 174.
40Peter Schrijvers, The GI War against Japan: American Soldiers in Asia and the
Pacificduring World War II (New York: NYU Press, 2005), 42.
4lSchrijvers, 43.
42Bill Adler, ed., World War II Letters (New York: st. Martin's Press, 2002), 56.
43Downer, 97.
44Patrick K. O'Donnell, Into the Rising Sun (New York: The Free Press, 2002), 86.
45Gallagher, 33.
46
Aihara, 3 1.
47Downer, 69.
48The Secret Life of Geisha, 1999.
49Sayo Masuda, Autobiography 0/ a Geisha(New York: Columbia University Press,
2003),87.
50Masuda, 52.
The Secret Life of Geisha, 1999.
The Secret Life a/Geisha, 1999.
51
52
25
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Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Vol. 37, num. 1, Clio - 2011
Description
An account of the resource
Six Degrees of Separation
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05-01
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
19pgs
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Geisha
Description
An account of the resource
Geisha have enchanted both Japanese and foreigners alike for centuries. With their unique beauty and exceptional skills in the arts, they are difficult to overlook. In the west, geisha rival Mount Fuji and the bullet train as the most recognizable emblem of Japan. Despite their widespread appeal, true understanding of what it means to be a geisha remains elusive for the majority of westerners. The Japanese and American perception of what a geisha is and what they actually do remain two very different entities. The geisha'S similar physical appearance to courtesans, the Japanese sensitivity over the subject of geisha, the fabricated bitterness between geisha and wives and the exaggeration of their complete servility to men all strengthened the western belief that they are prostitutes. This misunderstanding of geisha was only further reinforced following World War II, with American GIs bringing home tales of steamy encounters with "geesha girls." Ever since the Second World War, Americans tend to view geisha as primarily sexual or erotic beings, while the Japanese view them as representations of their rich past and culture.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bria, Amanda
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05-01
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/293/4e9c5f7303c1ca2c1f3a23d8d050c9f6.mp3
ccdec759435ae802aaf3915f459b370b
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
30 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Rose Gattuso
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bria, Amanda
Subject
The topic of the resource
Gattuso, Rose
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Discrimination
Education
Farm
Immigrant
Immigration
Italy
Oral History
School
Sewing
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/HIS_498_Spring_2019/2603/ms039_08_24_04.jpg
7df69b34508938edc293950970419f6e
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
HIS 498, Spring 2019
Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Original copy split onto two separate pages
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
'Politics Surface in Officials' Confrontation' Clipping-Hearthstone
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Brisgone, Gina
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1987-10-24
Description
An account of the resource
Horizontal paper with newspaper article
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The author reports on a screaming match between two community members. The members accuse each other of being overly political. The argument started over Hearthstone Castle and its maintenance, and soon one member was accusing the other of playing politics rather than caring about the issues themselves.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Danbury news-times (Danbury, Conn: Daily)
Subject
The topic of the resource
Danbury (Conn.)--History
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/926/QH96.8.P5B7.pdf
390fddb4546a931b9b214861c36e72c2
PDF Text
Text
QH96.8.P5B7
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
A study of the growth of plankton on different substrates planted in area ponds.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Brittingham, Frances, C.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Plankton
Freshwater plankton
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=QH96.8.P5B7">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
QH96.8.P5B7
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1980
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/WestConn_Master_s_Theses_title_pages_and_abstracts_1957-2003/1100/LC311.B7.pdf
4e446bc9e6034f945fddcb21e4dd3456
PDF Text
Text
LC311.B7
�LC311.B7
�LC311.B7
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
WestConn Master's Theses: title pages and abstracts, 1957-2003
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In 2004 a effort to digitize parts of WCSU's collection of Master's Theses was undertaken to provide new students with a way to easily access formatting styles and subject matter of works from previous years.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Value education in the elementary schools.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Brown, Marilyn W.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Moral education (Elementary)
Has Version
A related resource that is a version, edition, or adaptation of the described resource.
<a href="http://www.consuls.org/search/c?SEARCH=LC311.B7">CONSULS record</a>"
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
LC311.B7
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1972