2
100
1273
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/131/The_Boys_of_61.jpeg
69ae2f4ab749212e86c8a7ad231969f9
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/131/The_Boys_of_61_inside_cover.jpeg
869b86c8898772ec692965e70359050f
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Book
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The Boys of '61 or Four Years of Fighting
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Coffin, Charles Carleton
Description
An account of the resource
Personal observations with the Army and Navy from the first battle of Bull Run to the fall of Richmond.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1896
Civil War
observation
personal
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/132/Minstrel_Songs.jpeg
dfba2bb349d15af64c7a46c1915353ec
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/132/Minstrel_Songs_Index.jpeg
a7c17f94ae2b7e4e274f2a57bcee66d7
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Book
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Minstrel Songs: Old and New
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Foster, Stephen Collins
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1882
Description
An account of the resource
A collection of world-wide famous minstrel and plantation songs
Civil War
minstrel songs
music
plantation
Songs
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/133/Hospital_Sketches.jpeg
3eb815ae1b8df1b952ad56a30d4265b2
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/133/Hospital_Sketches_Preface_1.jpeg
a15e13846f19f52cb5c7100d54ae433e
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/133/Hospital_Sketches_Preface_2.jpeg
08b5547e95d52af13b0db806fbdbc232
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Book
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Hospital Sketches
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Alcott, Louisa May
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1889
Description
An account of the resource
Sketches of a Civil War volunteer nurse
Civil War
nurse
stories
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/134/The_Perfect_Tribute.jpeg
7ac33dfb768e8999ae5fe6c533071d3d
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Book
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
The Perfect Tribute
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Andrews, Mary Raymond Shipman
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1918
Description
An account of the resource
A story about Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg speech
Civil War
Gettysburg speech
Lincoln
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/135/The_Soldier_in_our_Civil_War.jpeg
9d30d1d574736ec4ca702cd4f6464a23
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/135/The_Soldier_in_our_Civil_War_inside_cover.jpeg
edfd63fdb0cf2cc98b1883d5f4526908
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Book
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The Soldier in Our Civil War
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Mottelay, Paul F.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1893
Description
An account of the resource
A pictorial history of the conflict 1861-1865
Civil War
illustrations
pictorial history
Soldiers
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/136/Ct_First_Regiment.jpeg
d1d1f56b671558b3f1932afbd4a3883b
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Book
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Our First Year of Army Life
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Walker, Edward Ashley
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1862
Description
An account of the resource
An anniversary address delivered to the First Regiment of Connecticut Volunteer Heavy Artillery
Civil War
Connecticut
First Connecticut Regiment
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/137/CT_Volunteers.jpeg
9e316d062b6f608a5153194fd796e46a
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Book
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
History of the 13th Infantry Regiment of Connecticut Volunteers During the Great Rebellion
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Sprague, Homer B
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1867
Description
An account of the resource
History of Connecticut volunteers in 13th Regiment
13th Connecticut Regiment
Civil War
Connecticut
infantry
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/138/Georgian_Plantation_inside_cover.jpeg
e2f3bb752440457f82ed0da5652b7774
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/138/Georgian_Plantation.jpeg
08213701c80722b7809a9e8ecf98b265
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Book
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838-1839
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Kemble, Frances Anne
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1863
Description
An account of the resource
Diary of a woman slave who lived on a Georgian plantation
Civil War
Georgia
Personal narrative
slavery
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/140/LandGrantAT.jpg
ceb10f5a9f89dcb1003d262be73b5483
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
A book of the recorded people and employees/employer who owed land or money to the court system in a case. This is a photo taken for the exhibit.
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
N/A
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Grantee list of Theophilus Abieniste
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
N/A
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1906-1912
Description
An account of the resource
This is a book of all the land grants within the Fairfield county of Connecticut. It has documentation of all the people and their land prior to the 1900s of their location and date of purchase.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This is a photograph taken of the land grant made for Theophilus Abieniste, which includes the location of his home and the date.
Subject
The topic of the resource
The topic of this resource is to provide information of Theophilus Abieniste's land and to whom the land was given to; Loewe VS Lawlor case.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
General Index to Land Records
Danbury, CT 1906-1912
Hatter
Marshall Hat
Theophilus Abieniste
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/143/prison_brigade.jpg
c7310881efa2d85bf37aa2adb222a9c4
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Women Prison Brigade
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1917
Description
An account of the resource
Photograph of the large group of women protesting in Washington, D.C.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
A number of women were sentenced to serve time in jail while they were picketing outside the White House for women's right to vote. Their charge "obstructing traffic" however, these women were peacefully picketing on the sidewalk.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
connecticuthistory.org
Contributor
An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource
Records of the National Woman's Party
his 298
prison brigade
Suffrage
Suffrage exhibit
Women's Suffrage Movement
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/144/Helena_Hill_Weed.jpg
6ad43b3d93e4529a1897e78a7f747804
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Helena Hill Weed
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1917-07-04
Description
An account of the resource
Photograph of Helena Hill Weed of Norwalk,Ct
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Helena Hill Weed served a 3 day sentence in D.C. for picketing at the White House. She was picketing with others for women's rights.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Library of Congress
Helena Hill Weed
his 298
prison brigade
Suffrage exhibit
Women's Suffrage Movement
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/145/LandGrantJC.jpg
4e2c12998a6ac894abc6e68d96d87995
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
A book of the recorded people and employees/employer who owed land or money to the court system in a case. This is a photo taken for the exhibit.
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
N/A
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Grantee list of James Costello
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
N/A
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1906-1912
Description
An account of the resource
This is a book of all the land grants within the Fairfield county of Connecticut. It has documentation of all the people and their land prior to the 1900s of their location and date of purchase.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This is a photograph taken of the land grant made for James Costello, which includes the location of his home and the date.
Subject
The topic of the resource
The topic of this resource is to provide information of James Costello's land and to whom the land was given to; Loewe VS Lawlor case.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
General Index to Land Records, Danbury, Connecticut
Hatter
James Costello
Marshall Hat
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/146/LandGrantJE.jpg
7e614df8356edbbc8c6f331c502b186f
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
A book of the recorded people and employees/employer who owed land or money to the court system in a case. This is a photo taken for the exhibit.
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
N/A
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Grantee list of James Elligott
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
N/A
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1906-1912
Description
An account of the resource
This is a book of all the land grants within the Fairfield county of Connecticut. It has documentation of all the people and their land prior to the 1900s of their location and date of purchase.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This is a photograph taken of the land grant made for James Elligott, which includes the location of his home and the date.
Subject
The topic of the resource
The topic of this resource is to provide information of James Elligotts's land and to whom the land was given to; Loewe VS Lawlor case.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
General Index to Land Records, Danbury, Connecticut
Hatter
James Elligott
Loewe v. Lawlor
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/147/LandGrantPM.jpg
36a49417a1f6eedccb4a0675a4befe61
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
A book of the recorded people and employees/employer who owed land or money to the court system in a case. This is a photo taken for the exhibit.
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
N/A
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Grantee list for Patrick McCarthy
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
N/A
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1906-1912
Description
An account of the resource
This is a book of all the land grants within the Fairfield county of Connecticut. It has documentation of all the people and their land prior to the 1900s of their location and date of purchase.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This is a photograph taken of the land grant made for Patrick McCarthy, which includes the location of his home and the date.
Subject
The topic of the resource
The topic of this resource is to provide information of Patrick McCarthy's land and to whom the land was given to; Loewe VS Lawlor case.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
General Index to Land Records, Danbury, Connecticut
Loewe v. Lawlor
Patrick McCarthy
Tweedy and Co. Hat Factory
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/149/Woman_Coaches_Boys_Baseball.jpg
f4b0538d07bc1c92f0921ae209507d3c
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Women Coach Boys' Baseball
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
AL Harvin
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1988-04-28
Description
An account of the resource
Newspaper article from the New York Times
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The article talks about Debbie McIntosh who became a coach to the Prospect Heights High School Boys' Baseball team. Before she became the baseball coach, Debbie was the girls' softball coach and led the boys' basketball team to the Public Schools Athletic League's B championship game.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
microfilm box New York Times April 21-30, 1988
Debbie McIntosh
his 298
Suffrage exhibit
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/150/Woman_s_Rights_Convention.jpg
3de9c4def240c242f2797b05f09f97f3
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Woman's Rights Convention
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1850-10-30
Description
An account of the resource
Newspaper article from the Hartford Daily Courant
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The article describes the convention at Worcester, Massachusetts where many women were the unfair treatment of women and what they wanted to change. It was mentioned that the women copied the forms from male conventions.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
microfilm box 17 drawer 11
Hartford Daily Courant
his 298
Suffrage
Suffrage exhibit
Woman's Rights Convention
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/151/Women_in_the_Medical_Profession.jpg
6bf0068cb9684a9f31321a9a57e2ff0a
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Women in the Medical Profession
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1852-02-03
Description
An account of the resource
Newspaper article from the Hartford Daily Courant
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The article mentions how women should be allowed to receive an education in the medical field. It also mentions how Philadelphia established a "Ladies' Medical Missionary Society" to help raise funds for any women who wants to work in the Missionary field.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
microfilm box 20 drawer 11
his 298
Suffrage
Suffrage exhibit
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/152/Women_s_Rights.pdf
ba9c3821a10763809237d656f009dd3e
PDF Text
Text
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Women's Rights
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1854-12-29
Description
An account of the resource
Newspaper article from the New York Times
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In the State of New York, women were trying to obtain from the State Legislature the right to suffrage. There are petitions going around for women to sign and bring to the House which will bring up the issue of voting rights.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
microfilm box 25 drawer 11
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/153/Burnita_S._Mathews_Dies_at_93_First_Woman_on_U.S._Trial_Courts.pdf
671f39cdcb0a217126d6d8aaa09efef3
PDF Text
Text
iliffodD.
Bwnita S. Mattheurs Dies ot 93;
Frrst Womanon U.S Trial Courts
Sin
AndScience,
MINNEAPOLIS,. Aprll 27 (/
Cllfford Don.ld Slmdk, I rlefl!
man and an awar$wlnnlru rn
science flctloi\ dted Mord.y ot
BYT.TNPAGNEENHOUSE
qriaLl iorlcNa, Yoil ftlicr
Copiah Counay, Mlssissippt, urherc her
lather owned a plantatim and served
slde Medical CeDter ln Mlnneapr
ss clerk of the local chancery court
She orten accomprnled hlm to cort,
wasSSyearsold.
Mr. Slmak wrcte mone
But uhlle the family sent her brother !o
law sclrool. sE was sent to the Conser-'
thr
dozen. ||ovcls; gerreral nonflctl
ence bmhs and hundreds ol shr
,rlss durlng a 37-!,€ar carBer ag
er. newB edttor and sclG[ce edl
vatory o, Muslc ln Clrlclnnatl" where
she studled volce and pleno.
Slre wEs teachln8, plano when the
United States entered World War L
Hopin8 to rind a Goyernment Job that
crould enable heflo ao !o law school at
Mlmeapolh Staf crd"fh
Tribune;
Among, hl8 bcttcr.knotm tltl
pnbllshed:'ln 1052; "lYr
"Clty,"
nlght, she .morred- o Waehihgori,
.tion" (1003); 'The Vtsliors"
possed a Clvll Servlce extmlnstion,
Arel{rdPll!*.lIO and
"Sklrmlsh: the Grcat $ro
snd look a iob ulth the Veterans A&
Burnita S. Matthwa
tlon ol Cllllord D. Slm8k," com
ministration. Slre went to nl8ht school
storl6 he publlshd ftrm l0{{ t!
at Natlonal Unlversity Law Scho
whiclr later beceme part ol Geo[i
llelpFrum Fdendr hSen te
Washin8lon Unlrrcrslty.
Atter hcr Braduatlon ln 1010. Mr
She recalled ln anlntervlew several Matthews, now marrled to a lawyr
wlth
Percy A, Matthews, spplled to the Vr
eram Admlnistratlon for a lob as
tlon to the noilon of a xromdn on
lawyer.
lawver. When the agency totd-her rhat
cencv old her r i
Federal bench When her
wa3 beln8 consldercd, one ol the
' on the dl$rlct courl T. Alan Go
orrgh sald publicly that wht
Matthews uould be a Bood
It
varlous prGcommunist actlvltles,. Mr.
nobesonb passport wss withheld fmm
lgm to 1058 and was nestorEd:to hlin
958
eston
when, in a slmllar case. the
Coun iuled the State Department's
flon unconstltutlonel.
Ho tEcelved tIrEe Hu8o awar
gar{ed as the Oscar of sclenc€
wrltln& and thr€e Scl€nce Flct
soclatlon ol Amerlca Nebula ,l
lncludlng the Grand Natlonrl h
nltlon ol hl8 entlrE colleclion o
He wag lnducted into Ore Sclen
would never hlr€ a woman ln the
legal department, she opened her own
lewolflce.
Laher. g1
Morc Otsllclo. to l.egsl Cdrecr
therc was "lust one thlnS urcng:
awomen,"
EyGl
{itr0e luilge Golilstioroush told
gome year8<later fiat hls @posil
had bealt mFtafen, she
rucslvid.n
welcome lrom her fellow ludSes, t
a$!cd aniong themselrres to assi
her all the "bn8 motlons," the m
technlcal .nd least rcwatding part
thecourt'sdoclreL
I.ea Lakq for ihe tagt
.
Judgc Matthew8 never retlrcd
cqln. In 1068 slle tmlr senlor s
thc
A campaigner for
women's rights,
she received an rcy
welcome from her
fellow judges.
nleccs and nephews, She wlll be
ln the lamily cemetery in Coplah Courty. MlsslsslpDl.
Gaurchr 80,
fuAidetoPhooecutorc
Her .cdvlties on behalf ol women's
rlghts began ln las scfiml,,ln loD, slre
rtas amoog serreral dozen women who
rcguldrly plcketed ttie Whlte Horee on
SundayE on behall ol rlomen's suf.
Joseph M. GasardL'who served for
frage, "You could carry a banner," ghe Zt years in the Manhaltan Dlsrlct Ai.
rccoUed ln the 1085 lnterview' "but lf torney's otflce and uas its chlel ace, you were arrc$ed lor Gountant when he retlred ln 1002, dled
ullhilrt a permlt. So when ol i heart attrck Mondry 6t St Frencls
I me $,hy I was there, I didn't
ln Mfuiml Bcac!1 wherc he
,ed. lle was m yoars old.
Mr. Gdsrrch. uho was born- ln fie
occeslonel csses
ln other Federe-l
corrts in UashinSton. She sat on,the
Unlted $stes Cqlrt ot ApDeals ror$e
Dlrtrlct ot C,olumbla and on the Unlted
States Com of qrstomsland Patent
Appeab. She contlnubd hearirg dBtilct
court cases mtll tiveyeans sto.
Judte .Ma[hews rctalned a stronE
sense of h€r ocrn mle e3 e Dtoneer, end
er sn role a s a p loneon o
never wavered in her commltment to
gxpandl]lg oEponunltles for womer tn
a 1085 lnterviafl wllh Oe{hird Branch,
s. newsbtterpubtished by rhe Federai
court system, she said rhe had always
ctosen somell'uibe her lsw clerl(s. .
:'fie reason I always had women,"
she gald, 'rrrai Decrusc so ofien, wllen a
woman makcs 3ood at somethln8 they
always say that mme mrn.did it. So I
lust ihoutht lt worild be better to have
i
-.- .
iiv-:i .
eor, nsmed
:
l1'.
-
r
ant ln lgaT and two yesrs lat(
hlm en asslstent Dl tdcr Aua
hE coutd queiiliili "wltnesses
grand lurl$. Upon Mr. Gasarch'8
tirement ltl f90&, Mr. Hogsn sald O
"no man ha8 given grerter Bervlce
lhe edmlnlstretlbn of crlmloEl
ln the past quhncro,l a c(
entuiy. Just:
Dast urncr o
Mn, Gasardh'e wlG
Sarah Doinibrclr, dled ln
generous scttlement for il.
lnrthe lo{ds she eka tet
nCollegpof Law,
Universlty.
ln l0{0. Presldent. Trumer
lr to orc ol 1l new dlstiiatird
Congress
lrdcrpeted
in dlstrlct:::'court':
rr rullnSs w8s one r
rf Bleck Muslihi ln
lsrsiinrived by a bromer,
at Luther.n Hoq
n on Sunday, Shd
olEmklvn,
Mlsg
wasg
ln the Bay Rldge
l,;ke was lnvolved wlth
r
taurentlrom herOtkftoQa .
.
lt $N3 lomded ln lU2 by At
M, Sweet o|r Ful&m Street ln It
tan ln rxhat ls notf, the South Stn
portr' Mlss lake'B faiher,
u,ellGd lnto the t"sf,aurent
mdntm alter the Grcxt Blla
1888 asLlng lor work and was hlr
uaterboy
the ,ob today kn
burboy. T$entydne yearr lt
boualrt Sure€t's frum t$e pmp
-
son,Edward.
Mlss Lalre took over on the d
h 1033. A smsll sdl
woman, slrqwas.ln drarge lo
decades. One ol the llrst thhSs
ln l$l3 sa3 todlscotrtlnu€ Ore b
housG thst had:,been] an adjunc
ne3tluf.ant rlnoe lts esrly ds!r8.
sweet'8 oDereted contlnuqrsl
ryr,!!!d,!'gl' .
state Depsrtmerit to lssle a'pr
to the sinSer'Paul RobesgL i
accused ol belng a membef of
rmunlst Party arrd of suppon
l.
:
1,1:1
a' 1..
:
:t:.:. .
:
,:,;,I.t1iXi.
blocl lmown as Schermeltorn I
twecn,sqrth and Frcnt stEets,
lor two perlods. One war ln tli
lust belore and durlu the Ch
:,
.lerlnfu-",it
Frrcud Prrofouor,
?l
I
professorof Fr
Columbia Universlty for 31, yea
last Thursday at White Phlns t
alter a lon8,lllness, He was 7l y'
Jean Sar€ll,
rnd llved ln Scarsdale. N;lr.
Dr, Sareil was a leadlni scl
e
rcUtlqli servlc(rs,
.
r:iiifr'::l
Mi. Gaearch chl,lf
l
wanted to shof,rt my.contir
a Slrellon'd*:ldail ras', a
Bhe lrented to be s lawl
ahou8h prolesslonal
the law were extrc
women..Shenas,rliorn
-..
.t:.".r.:..':...1 :):t
,llure
hcr lather
permlttlig he. to reduce her uoi*load
dbtrlct court whlle slso hearlnB
oo the
yean
'letor ol Sw6t's, the oldest t
mt ln New Yor* Ctty,
Urred
lnSer Llbrary on lhe Hlstory of Wohren
ln Amerlco, at Radcllf le Golloge.
5S
,
i
I
I
onthcOp-Edpegc
scvcndayrawcek..
Thc Ncw York Tlmes
Voltalre and wrote 27 books.
ft rbm.scholarlv ribrki on Frend
tu!€. tq,
,ninels;,rHe alg
iiii'lth.
I're Dr
ddvbral
dtrum Ore'Uhiv.
n Ph.D;fn m Col
ln,rddltlon:tdthls, wlfeihe l3,s
a:so$iPhillpig; ot Scarf qalsa
\.::
.1
.
.', i :. : .:
:. :a
.:-:.
�
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Burnita S. Matthews Dies at 93; First Woman on U.S. Trial Courts
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Linda Greenhouse
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1988-04-28
Description
An account of the resource
Newspaper article from the New York Times
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
After being a strong campaigner for women's rights, Burnita became the first woman to serve as a Federal district judge in 1949. Burnita ruled over a number of major trials including the 1957 James R. Hoffa bribery trial.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
microfilm box New York Times April 21-30, 1988
Burnita S. Matthews
his 298
Suffrage
Suffrage exhibit
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/154/cartoon_book-cover0001.jpg
63f958dbd73822d750e41e0ba7f403dd
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/154/cartoon_book-cover0002.jpg
028e04b9df88cea37c436da41dc88035
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/154/someone_at_your_door0001.jpg
95ff3021716b4883dad68b270f6149ed
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Bonds Cartoon Book
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1919
Description
An account of the resource
Pages? size? -
Subject
The topic of the resource
World War, 1914-1918
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The book/pamphlet was published after World War One in 1919. It was a compilation of political cartoons rallying the public to buy government bonds. Government bonds were essential to funding the military and other war expenses.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
World War I Era Publications and Propaganda, MS 055
Fundraising
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/155/HelpSerbia0001.jpg
9f32b682ecb74548384c6a7b8a7658d2
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Help Serbia Flyer
Description
An account of the resource
Serbia was catastrophically affected by the war. A substantial percentage of U.S. foreign aid during the war was given to Serbia.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Serbia Aid Flyer
Fundraising
Serbia
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Hatters_Case_Clippings/156/MalloryHat.jpg
fc852406948b7c5d881fc8124fadd023
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
This is a photo taken by the Insurance Maps of Danbury, CT. It seems to be hand-written, drawn, and colored in.
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
N/A
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Map of original site of Mallory Hat Co.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
N/A
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1904
Description
An account of the resource
This map provides the exact location of the Mallory Hat Company location. It provides even more details of the surrounding streets and buildings.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This image provides a look at how the buildings were set up as and the location.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Insurance Maps of Danbury, CT
(Sanborn Map Company)
February 1904
Subject
The topic of the resource
Danbury Hatters Case
Hatters
Mallory Hat
Map
Original location
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Hatters_Case_Clippings/157/McLachlanCO.jpg
d8cf7e161c9ac95ca90a5d6c1217de72
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
This is a photo taken by the Insurance Maps of Danbury, CT. It seems to be hand-written, drawn, and colored in.
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
N/A
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
McLachlan Hat Company
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
N/A
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1904
Description
An account of the resource
Exact, original location and address of the company.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Map of the location for Mclachlan Company.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Insurance Maps of Danbury, CT
(Sanban Map Company)
February 1904
Subject
The topic of the resource
D.E. Loewe Company
Hat Factory
Hatters
McLachlan Co
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Hatters_Case_Clippings/158/MoreHat.jpg
f0cb87fda8f22440d878f78429d8caa3
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
This is a photo taken from the Insurance Maps of Danbury, CT. It seems to be hand-drawn and colored in.
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
N/A
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Hatting Companies
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
N/A
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1904
Description
An account of the resource
Location of multiple hatting industries and companies
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Location of multiple hatting industries and companies
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Insurance Maps of Danbury, CT
(Sanborn Map Company)
February 1904
Subject
The topic of the resource
Danbury Hatters Company Locations
Hatting Industry
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/159/ObituararyAllen.jpg
ddf8ff8cfcd3e954b6f71fd9591bff5b
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Obituary of Nicholas Allen
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Danbury Evening News
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
October 13, 1930
Description
An account of the resource
The life of Nicholas Allen
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The life of Nicholas Allen
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Danbury Evening News
Monday, October 13, 1930
Employee
Frank H. Lee & Co.
Nicholas Allen
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/160/ObituararyMcCarthy.jpg
348fc43646b03cadcd70890ca50925ea
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Obituary of Patrick McCarthy
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
The News Times
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
Thursday, September 9, 1976
Description
An account of the resource
The funeral of Mr. McCarthy and his life
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The funeral of Mr. McCarthy and his life
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
The News Time
Thursday, September 9, 1976
Employee
Patrick McCarthy
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/161/ObituararyCostello1.jpg
9068998ee6c096b21208715c5e2f37cb
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Obituary of James Costello
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Danbury Evening News
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
Friday, November 7, 1913
Description
An account of the resource
Life of James Costello
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Life of James Costello
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Danbury Evening News
Friday, November 7, 1913
D. E. Loewe and Co.
Employee
James Costello
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/162/ObituararyElligott.jpg
82f4de407ef46eb47a7b5f9771cafb37
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Obituary of Patrick Elligott Sr.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Danbury Evening News
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
Saturday, February 23, 1918
Description
An account of the resource
Life of Patrick Elligott Sr
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Life of Patrick Elligott Sr
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Danbury Evening News
Saturday, February 23, 1918
Employee
National Association of Hat Manufacturers
Patrick Elligott Sr.
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/163/HelpSerbia0003.jpg
22edcddb63c715990c37fad1d3a067f6
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Ten Allies Costume Ball
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
Tuesday November 28th 1916
Subject
The topic of the resource
WW1: Fundraising
charity
Costume ball
Fundraising
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/164/ObituararySullivan.jpg
3121551bf749ee1c278a3e6f01ae7143
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Obituary of Mark Sullivan
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Danbury Evening News
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
Saturday, September 19, 1908
Description
An account of the resource
Life of Mark Sullivan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Life of Mark Sullivan
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Danbury Evening News
Saturday, September 19, 1908
Hatter
Lee Hat Company
Mark Sullivan
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/165/Grandbenifit003.pdf
267275ae99d774688dd625d7f67e3de9
PDF Text
Text
����
Physical Object
An inanimate, three-dimensional object or substance. Note that digital representations of, or surrogates for, these objects should use Moving Image, Still Image, Text or one of the other types.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Grand Benefit
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
Tuesday, May 1st, 1917, 4:30pm
Description
An account of the resource
A program/invitation to a Banquet fundraiser for France
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
World War I Era Publications and Propaganda, MS 055
Fundraising
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/166/ObituararyAbienste2.jpg
804871158c136680b97ac0bfe443f3ab
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Obituary of Theophilas Abienste
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Danbury Evening News
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
Januarary 5, 1925
Description
An account of the resource
Life of Theophilas Abienste
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Life of Theophilas Abienste
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Danbury Evening News
Januarary 5, 1925
Hatter
Hill and Loper Comany
Theophilus Abieniste
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/167/War001.pdf
d53354f47f1a191a4b93cf3db7646232
PDF Text
Text
����
Physical Object
An inanimate, three-dimensional object or substance. Note that digital representations of, or surrogates for, these objects should use Moving Image, Still Image, Text or one of the other types.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The War Relief Clearing House
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
World War I Era Publications and Propaganda, MS 055
charity
Fundraising
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Hatters_Case_Clippings/168/youngshats.jpg
15c1399384c60c0cf2bf3ed5ca3d796d
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Young's Hats advertisement
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1907
Description
An account of the resource
8 x 10", single page
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Derby and top hat featured.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Hats
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Connecticut Historical Printed Miscellanea Collection
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
The American Hatter
Hat manufacturers advertisments
Hatting Industry
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/169/Atrocitiescover.pdf
35b4864287b252d2df1735b77f5c01e2
PDF Text
Text
�
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/169/atrocities.pdf
1921949808336da6ca5a83780cd994bd
PDF Text
Text
�
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/169/atrocities2.pdf
050ca0f5d1401f55a13b01d28143e766
PDF Text
Text
�
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Pamphlet
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
German Atrocities in France
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1915
Description
An account of the resource
4x7 inches, 46 pages
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
A translation of a report presented to the President of the Council of Ministers which calls for the investigation of actions committed by German troops.
Subject
The topic of the resource
World War I, 1914-1918
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
World War I Era Publications and Propaganda. MS 055 Box 3
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Causton and Sons
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Causton and Sons 1916
Germany
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/170/Election-Debate-October-9-1920-Norman-Rockwell.jpg
ca30ed4d9803edd73753265d764d1ce1
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Magazine Cover
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Election Debate by Norman Rockwell from October 9, 1920
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Rockwell, Norman
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1920-10-09
Description
An account of the resource
Link to Digital Object
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
The Saturday Evening Post;, http://www.saturdayeveningpost.com/2012/09/07/art-entertainment/election-covers.html/attachment/election-debate-october-9-1920-norman-rockwell
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Curtice Publishing, Saturday Evening Post Norman Rockwell Collection
1920 Election
1920 Presidential Campaign
Norman Rockwell
Saturday Evening Post
Women Voting
Women's Suffrage Movement
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/171/FDR_1920_Campaigning.jpg
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Photographic Print
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Franklin D. Rooosevelt, full-length portrait, during the 1920 Presidential campaign
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Library of Congress
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
c.1920
Description
An account of the resource
Link to a Digital Object
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Democratic vice Presidential candidate Franklin D. Roosevelt campaigning in 1920. Location unknown.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/95504351/
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
PPOC, Prints and Photographs Online Catalog - Library of Congress
1920 Democratic Campaign
1920 Election
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Presidential Campaign
Vice President
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/172/NF_20_Americanism-Franklin_D_Roosevelt-ROOSEVELT.jpg
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https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/172/Americanism_-_FDR.wav
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Sound
A resource primarily intended to be heard. Examples include a music playback file format, an audio compact disc, and recorded speech or sounds.
Transcription
Any written text transcribed from a sound
<p>Much has been said of late about good Americanism. It is right that it should have been said. And it is right that every chance should be seized to repeat the basic truths underlying our prosperity and our national existence itself. But it would be an unusual and much to be wished-for thing, if in the coming presentation of the issue a new note of fairness and generosity could be struck.</p>
<p>Littleness, meanness, falsehood, extreme partisanship: these are not in accord with the American spirit. I like to think that in this respect also we are moving forward. Let me be concrete. We have passed through a great war. An armed conflict which called forth every resource, every effort, on the part of the whole population. The war was won by Republicans as well as by Democrats. Men of all parties served in our armed forces. Men and women of all parties served the government at home. They strived honestly, as Americans, not as mere partisans. Republicans and Democrats alike worked in administrative positions, raised Liberty Loans, administered food control, toiled in munitions plants, built ships. The war was brought to a successful conclusion by a glorious common effort -- one which in the years to come will be a national pride.</p>
<p>I feel very certain that our children will come to regard our participation as memorable for the broad honor and honesty which marked it; for the absence of unfortunate scandal and for the splendid unity of action which extended to every portion of the nation. It would therefore not only serve little purpose, but would conform ill to our high standards, if any person should, in the heat of political rivalry, seek to manufacture political advantage out of a nationally conducted struggle.</p>
<p>We have seen things on too large a scale to listen at this date to trifles, or to believe in the adequacy of trifling men. It is that same vision of the higher outlook of national and individual life which will, I am sure, lead us to demand that the men who represent us in the affairs of government shall be more than politicians; that they shall subordinate always the individual ambitions and the party advantage to the national good. In the long run, the true statements and the honestly forward-looking party will prevail.</p>
<p>Even if a nation entered the war for an ideal, so it has emerged from the war with the determination that this ideal shall not die. It is idle to pretend that the declaration of war of April 6, 1917 was a mere act of self-defense, or that the object of our participation was solely to defeat the military power of the central nations of Europe. We knew then as a nation, even as we know today, that success on land and sea could be but half a victory. The other half is not won yet. The cry of the French at Verdun, "They shall not pass" and the cheer of our own men in the Argonne, "We shall go through," these were essential glories, yet they are incomplete. To them we must write the binding finish -- it shall not occur again -- for America demands that the crime of war shall cease.</p>
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
1 sound disc : analog, 78 rpm ; 12 in.
Duration
Length of time involved (seconds, minutes, hours, days, class periods, etc.)
4 minutes 21 seconds
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Recorded speech given by Franklin D. Rooselvet on Americanism.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Recording reproduced by the Library of Congress and American Memory.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
c1920.
Description
An account of the resource
Link to Digital Object
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Campaign Speech Franklin D. Roosevelt recorded for the Nation's Forum.
Subject
The topic of the resource
1920 Presidential Campaign
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Library of Congress, http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/nfor:@field(DOCID+@range(90000035+90000036))
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Library of Congress - American Memory
Contributor
An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource
The family of Guy Golterman, and with the cooperation of CBS-Sony Records and the Recording Industry Association of America.
1920 Democratic Campaign
1920 Election
1920 Presidential Campaign
Americanism
Campaign Speech
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Recorded Speech
Vice President
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/173/9_a.jpg
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Photomechanical print
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The Awakening
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Meyer, Henry
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1915-02-20
Description
An account of the resource
Link to Digital Object
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Illustration shows a torch-bearing female labeled "Votes for Women", symbolizing the awakening of the nation's women to the desire for suffrage, striding across the western states, where women already had the right to vote, toward the east where women are reaching out to her. Printed below the cartoon is a poem by Alice Duer Miller. - LOC
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/cph/item/98502844/
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
New York : Published by Puck Publishing Corporation, 295-309 Lafayette Street, 1915 February 20.
Women's Suffrage Movement
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/174/M-H-B_a.jpg
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Photographs
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Portraits: Governor Holcomb, Senator McLean and Senator Brandegee
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Library of Congress
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
Between 1905 and 1945
Description
An account of the resource
Link to Digital Objects
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The portraits of Governor Holcomb, Senator McLean and Senator Brandegee are placed into a single document.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Library of Congress, PPOC Prints and Photograghs Online Catalog
Connecticut
Governor Holcomb
Senator Brandegee
Senator McLean
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/175/GermanAmericanscover.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
�
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/175/GermanAmericanspages.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
�
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Americans of German Origin and the War
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Kahn, Otto H.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1917
Description
An account of the resource
4x6, 19 pages
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This pamphlet documents excerpts from a speech delivered by Otto Hermann Kahn at a Liberty Loan meeting on June 1, 1917.
Subject
The topic of the resource
World War I, 1914-1918
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
WWI Era Publications and Propaganda MS 055 Box 2
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Merchant’s Association of New York at its Liberty Loan Meeting
Germany
Propaganda
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/176/cartoonsmagazine.jpg
2b7c57650f70e0c77ae37072abb0d0ac
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Cartoons Magazine
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1917
Description
An account of the resource
12x8, 200 pages
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
A patriotic illustration on the cover of Cartoons Magazine which portrays the might and victory of America during World War I.
Subject
The topic of the resource
World War I, 1914-1918
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
World War I Era Publications and Propaganda MS 055 Box 4
Propaganda
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/177/19th_Passage_a.jpg
928ba3b88e2fca9dd3dc6af6f56457e7
Dataset
Data encoded in a defined structure. Examples include lists, tables, and databases. A dataset may be useful for direct machine processing.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Congressional Votes and State Ratification of the 19th Amendment
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Shea, Patrick
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1919-1984
Description
An account of the resource
Data gathered from the Library of Congress online sources, formated and entered in a word document.
Subject
The topic of the resource
19th Amendment
19th Amendment
Congressional Vote
State Ratification
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/178/Prohibition_a.jpg
dfb6bfc1659eab42eef5c8845209e28f
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Wood engraving
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Political Cartoon - Prohibition and anti women's suffrage
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Cesare, Oscar Edward
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1915-09-25
Description
An account of the resource
Item from digital source
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Cartoon showing a genii "Prohibition" rising from a bottle labeled "Injustice Intolera[nce] Hypocr[isy]" tearing at a woman's banner reading "Votes for Women" as the woman flees from his clutches. - LOC
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Library of Congrress, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/98502832/
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Library of Congress, PPOC Prints and Photograghs Online Catalog
Oscar Edward Cesare
Prohibition
Puck
Women's Suffrage
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/179/LiteraryDigest.jpg
ee713618082c150e58c3aa809f0c9ca3
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Magazine
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The Literary Digest
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Funk and Wagnalls Company
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1918
Description
An account of the resource
13x11, 96 pages
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
An article from the Literary Digest magazine which describes the American victory at the battle at Seicheprey.
Subject
The topic of the resource
World War I 1914-1918
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
World War I Era Publications and Propaganda MS 055 Box 1
Propaganda
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/180/dysoncover.jpg
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https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/180/steppingstonestohigherthings.jpg
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https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/180/steppingstones.jpg
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
War Cartoons
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Dyson, Will
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1914-1918
Description
An account of the resource
13x11, 22 pages
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
A collection of illustrations by Will Dyson with excerpts of letters and publications by various by various contributors.
Subject
The topic of the resource
World War I, 1914-1918
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
World War I Era Publications and Propaganda MS 055 Box 4
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Houder & Stoughton, St. Paul's House, Warwick Square, London
Germany
Propaganda
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/181/Germany_s_New_War_Pg_3009.pdf
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PDF Text
Text
�
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/181/Germany_s_New_War.jpg
e9d95a50afe7b886b7d54a36d0f6425b
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Germany's New War Against America
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Frost, Stanley
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1919
Description
An account of the resource
Author Stanley Frost firmly believed that Germany would start another war with the U.S. soon after the conclusion of the First World War.
New War
Propaganda
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/182/NF_20_Americanism-Franklin_D_Roosevelt-ROOSEVELT.jpg
f320bf04278b06094b083364c521a034
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Photograph
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Franklin D. Roosevelt making an acoustic recording
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
c.1920
Description
An account of the resource
Link to digital image
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
FDR shouts into a recording horn for the Nation's Forum collection. The recording is a speech that FDR had given sometime prior to this recording.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Authentic History.com, http://www.authentichistory.com/special/nationsforum/NF_20_Americanism-Franklin_D_Roosevelt.html
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Authentic History.com
1920 Election
Americanism
Democratic Party
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Nation's Forum
Vice President
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/183/cvr_1.jpg
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Cover Icon
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Shea, Patrick
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
c. 200
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/184/porth_carte_de_visite.jpg
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Carte de Visite Photograph
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
2.5" x 4"
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Carte de Visite of "Grandpa Porth"
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
I.G. Steiger
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
ca. 1862
Description
An account of the resource
Company C 24th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry man posed in Civil War Uniform
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Carte de Visite of a man in a Civil War uniform. Picture has writing on it that says "Grandpa Porth fought in Civil War" Example of soldier/family carte de visite
Subject
The topic of the resource
Civil War
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Alfred Geddes Papers
carte de visite
Civil War
his 298
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/185/106.JPG
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Photo Album
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
8" x 10"
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Photo Album filled with Carte de Visites
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
ca. 1860
Description
An account of the resource
Photo Album with a collection of Carte de Visite photos inside
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Leather bound photo album with no writing on the outside except for the word "Album" on the spine. Inside is somebody's collection of Carte de Visite photos during and around the time of the Civil War
Subject
The topic of the resource
Civil War
carte de visite
Civil War
his 298
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/186/stroll_carte_de_visite.jpg
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
carte de visite photo
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
2.5" x 4"
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Carte de Visite of Civil War Officer
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
ca. 1861
Description
An account of the resource
Civil War Officer seated in a chair dressed in full uniform
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Union Officer from the Civil War in full uniform holding a sword and his hat is on a table too his right with crossed swords and a 7 on it.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Civil War
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Alfred Geddes Papers
carte de visite
Civil War
his 298
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/187/mother_and_infant_carte_de_visite.jpg
5997c9083403674f8f9b41416e9ff24d
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
carte de visite photo
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
2.5" x 4"
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Mother and Infant Carte de Visite
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
ca. 1860
Description
An account of the resource
Mother and her infant child
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Example of a photo a soldier would have brought with him to battle during the Civil War
Subject
The topic of the resource
Civil War
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Alfred Geddes Papers
carte de visite
Civil War
his 298
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/188/ellsworth_gaurd_carte_de_visite.jpg
83304dfee0e18b6b4490f99443c7779e
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
carte de visite photo
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
2.5" x 4"
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Ellsworth Gaurd Carte de Visite
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
ca. 1860
Description
An account of the resource
Civil War posed with Rifle with Bayonet
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Civil War soldier who looks to be dressed in what the Ellsworth Guards would have worn
Subject
The topic of the resource
Civil War
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Alfred Geddes Papers
carte de visite
Civil War
his 298
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/189/stephan_a_douglas_carte_de_visite.png
2282e68b334b190f8e47104462616848
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
carte de visite photo
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
2.5" x 4"
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Carte de Visite of Stephen A. Douglas
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
ca. 1860
Description
An account of the resource
Carte de Visite of Stephen A. Douglas as a U.S. senator
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Senator Stephen A. Douglass from Illinois. Douglas lost to Abraham Lincoln in the 1860 Presidential Election
Subject
The topic of the resource
Civil War
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Alfred Geddes Papers
carte de visite
Civil War
his 298
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/190/someone_at_your_door0002.jpg
b8e8d1ba0eb0125ee072f29ea18e7e43
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Replica of the Marshall Foch Victory Harmony Banner
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
May 1919
Description
An account of the resource
A still image of a commemorative banner containing all of the flags of the allied forces during World War I.
Commemorations
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/191/George_P_Hawley_Poster010.jpg
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Poster Honoring the Dead
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1918
Description
An account of the resource
A poster honoring George P. Hawley, a soldier who lost his life during World War I
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Hawley was from Danbury, CT and this poster was sent to his family after he died on the front due to a spinal disease
Commemorations
Soldiers
World War I
-
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Certificate of Gratitude and Sympathy
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1918
Description
An account of the resource
A certificate of appreciation sent to soldier George P. Hawley's family, offering condolences and gratitude for his service in the First World War.
Commemorations
Gratitude
World War I
-
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Paper, Photographs
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Exhibit Header Image
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Shea, Patrick
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1919 - 1920
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/195/HelpSerbia0002.jpg
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
National Allied Bazaar
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
December 9th
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Flyer for New York Section National Allied Bazaar
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
World War I Era Publications and Propaganda, MS 055
foreign aid
Fundraising
World War I
-
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PDF Text
Text
��
Still Image
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Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Belgium Flyers
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Belgium Flyers
-
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
This is a photo of the original grantees' list of the recorded people. It is a book with the location of the employee and the page number and date of the time of the transaction.
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
N/A
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Grantee list of Mark Sullivan
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
N/A
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1906-1912
Description
An account of the resource
This is a grantee list of Mark Sullivan, including the location of his home, page number he is on and the date of when his case occurred.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This provides much information of the worker who was part of the Hatter Union, however, in turn was liable for damages caused by the boycott.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Danbury, Conn.--Hatters strike, 1902
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
General Index to Land Records
Danbury, CT 1906-1912
Land Grant
Mark Sullivan
-
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
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This is a photo taken from the actual General Index of Land Records.
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
N/A
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Grantee List of Nicholas Allen
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Danbury (City of)
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1906-1912
Description
An account of the resource
A book of the recorded people and employees/employer who owed land or money to the court system in a case. Also, this includes the location of what was seized by the court and when.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This sums up the location, page number, and date of the actual land that was taken for the case.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Danbury Hatters Case of 1908.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
General Index to Land Records
Danbury, CT 1906-1912
Danbury Hatter
Grantee List
Nicholas Allen
-
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PDF Text
Text
�
Still Image
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Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Chromolithograph
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
A suggestion to the Buffalo Exposition; - Let us have a chamber of female horrors.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Dalrymple, Louis
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1901-04-03
Description
An account of the resource
Link to digital image
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Illustration with Uncle Sam and John Bull showing off an exhibt of women suffragettes to world leaders.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2010651394/
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division
Cartoons (Commentary)
Louis Dalrymple
Women's Suffrage Movement
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/200/Woman_s_Sphere_a.jpg
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Illustration
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
A Woman's Sphere - Suffrage cartoons
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Miller NAWSA Suffrage Scrapbooks, 1897-1911
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
about 1909
Description
An account of the resource
Link to digital image
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Merle De Vore Johnson cartoon shows woman peering over a fence labeled "Woman's Sphere" while her toys "Fashion" and "gossip" lay abandoned; another cartoon shows women voting while pushing a baby carriage. - LOC
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Library of Congress, http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.rbc/rbcmil.scrp5015401
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Library of Congress, Rare Book and Special Collections Division
Cartoons (Commentary)
Women's Suffrage
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/201/Labor_Party_Song_a.jpg
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Still Image
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Original Format
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Paper
Physical Dimensions
The actual physical size of the original image
13 1/2" x 10 1/4"
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
National Labor Party song titled "I'll Never Vote Like Daddy Anymore."
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
McDowell, Arch (Composer)
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
c.1920
Description
An account of the resource
Link to digital item
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
1920 Presidential Campaign songs for the National Labor Pary
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/item/ihas.200155637
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Library of Congress, Music Division
1920 Election
Campaign Songs
National Labor Party
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/202/Rep_Women_a.jpg
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Photograph
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Party members picketing the Republican Convention in Chicago,
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
International Film Service Co., Inc.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1920-06
Description
An account of the resource
Link to digital image
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Photograph of women holding banners outside in front of stores. Banners read "Tennessee," "Connecticut," and "We protest against the continued disfranchisement of women for which the Republican party is now responsible. The Republican party defeated ratification in Delaware. The Republican party is blocking ratification in Vermont. The Republican party is blocking ratification in Connecticut. When will the Republican party stop blocking suffrage?" - LOC
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Records of teh National Woman's Party, LOC http://www.loc.gov/item/mnwp000306
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Library of Congress, Manuscript Division
1920 Election
Chicago
Connecticut
National Women's Party
Republican Convention
Women's Suffrage Movement
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/203/Senator_Brandegee_b.jpg
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Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Photographic print
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Senator Frank B. Brandegee
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1910-01-21
Description
An account of the resource
Item from digital link
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Head and houlders portait of Frank B. Brandegee
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
LOC - http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2002722547/
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division
1920 Election
Connecticut
Senator Brandegee
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Walter_Gordon_Merrit/211/walter1.docx
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A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
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https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/212/American_Ideals011.jpg
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Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
American and Allied Ideals
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Stuart P. Sherman
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
February, 1918
Description
An account of the resource
Pamphlet
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
A pamphlet issued by the CPI on American and Allied Ideals
Subject
The topic of the resource
World War I 1918
Propaganda
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Walter_Gordon_Merrit/214/w1.pdf
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Text
�
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�
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Text
�
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
New large plants constructed.
Union calls strike against Loewe.
Suit posed two major questions
D. E. Loewe and Co.
United Hatters of North America
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�
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Fate of hatters homes in balance.
Hat factories - old and new
American Federation of Labor
Martin Lawlor
United Hatters of North America
Walter Gordon Merritt
-
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Text
A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text.
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
War Information
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Committee on Public Information
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1917
Description
An account of the resource
Pamphlet
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Cover page describing brief overviews included withing the text of the pamphlet
Subject
The topic of the resource
World War I, 1917
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/222/American_Ideals_Pages.jpg
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
American and Allied Ideals Pages
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Stuart P. Sherman
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
February, 1918
Description
An account of the resource
Pamphlet
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
An introduction into the ideals of the Allied and American forces as described by Stuart P. Sherman
Subject
The topic of the resource
World War I 1918
-
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A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Original Format
The type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data
Images - Paper
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Danbury's Firsts - Women casting the first ballot in 1920 election.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Shea, Patrick
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
c.1920
Description
An account of the resource
Data gathered and formated from the WCSU Archives and Danbury Evening News
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Data gathered and formated from the Danbury Evening News (1920-11-02), and 1920 Danbury Women Voter Register describing election day events on November 2, 1920
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Dabury Ledgers, DRG 1&2; WCSU Archives, Danbury Evening News
1920 Election
Danbury (Conn.)
Danbury Evening News
Danbury Voter Roll
Women Voting
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._40_num._1_Clio_-_2014/224/introTitle.pdf
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Clio
2014
The Lenses of History
�The Lenses of History
CLIO
WCSU HISTORY JOURNAL
FORTIETH EDITION
2013-2014
�ii
�CONTENTS
Introduction: the Lenses of History
DR. MARCY MAY AND DR. WYNN GADKAR-WILCOX
1
The Clio Staff
4
FEATURED ARTICLES
Ancestry.com’s Family Tree:
A Personal History or an Orchard of Doubts?
ALICIA MONIZ
5
Divorce in Nineteenth-Century Connecticut:
Emancipation from the Chains of Marriage
MEAGAN ENGLISH
14
Between Cinematic and Simulation?
Approaching Microhistory in Video Games
LEIGH SCUDDER
24
The President of the United States:
A Transformation of Public Perceptions
due to Media Advancement and Influence
NICHOLLE JEJER
38
Weather Modification as a Weapon of War
BERNARD KOKINCHAK
48
The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire of 1911:
Resulting Labor Safety Laws
and Exemplary Action to Prevent the Preventable
iii
�MARISSA O’LOUGHLIN
71
BOOK REVIEW ARTICLE
Race and Gender through the American Lens
(A Review of Duffy, Who’s Your Paddy,
and Lindenauer, I Could Not Call Her Mother)
MEAGAN ENGLISH
82
iv
�INTRODUCTION:
CLIO: THE LENSES OF HISTORY
Dr. Marcy May and Dr. Wynn Gadkar-Wilcox
In 2014, the world marks the centennial of the Great War, the first global experience
of total warfare. As communities and nations plan commemorations, historians are
re-examining the causes and consequences of what we now call the First World War.
To do so they will employ a variety of approaches, drawing from the branches and
subfields within the discipline that have enriched our understanding of how
societies function and develop. These lenses of history allow us to focus narrowly
on a particular region or population or to consider the global scope of change.
Economic historians draw our attention to the conflicts of international trade, while
political historians ask us to look more carefully at domestic policies and historians
of foreign relations remind us of the fragility of diplomacy. Through these different
viewpoints we gain a more complete and accurate picture of the past.
This edition of Clio utilizes the theme of the “Lenses of History” to examine
moments of American history from different viewpoints. Approaching topics from
the vantage points of popular culture, legal history, the study of gender, labor
history, environmental history and political history, the authors offer new insights
through their examination of previously underutilized materials.
By focusing on popular culture, Alicia Moniz examines the limits and biases
of a popular tool for genealogical study, Ancestry.com. Moniz argues that although
the availability of materials for constructing personal family histories may benefit
consumers who want a quick snapshot of their family tree, Ancestry often promises
more than it actually delivers. Without the benefit of a larger historical perspective,
Ancestry patrons are left with only a decontextualized impression of where or how
their kin fit into a changing American society.
Meagan English draws upon work from legal history and the study of gender
to document the changes in divorce law in nineteenth century Connecticut. English
notes a “shift in the treatment and view of American women and their roles within
the home and in the community as a whole,” as she considers the complex
developments that might explain liberalizing divorce law. English won the 2014
1
�Herbert Janick Award for the best essay in history for this article.
Video games represent a new topic for historical analysis, and Leigh Scudder
brings his expertise as a player to his analysis in “Between Cinematic and
Simulation? Approaching Micro-History in Video Games.” Scudder examines
popular games such as L.A. Noir, Red Dead Redemption, and Brothers-in-Arms,
noting that these games use “micro-history” derived less from the works of
historians than from films. A major consequence, Scudder finds, is the elevation of
conflict as a major historical theme, something that may be appropriate for gaming
as entertainment or business, but misleading as reliable history.
From the West Wing to the American President, the mass media has for
many years presented us with a perhaps untenable view of the ideals we should
expect from Presidents of the United States. Nicholle Jejer subjects the theme of the
American Presidency in the mass media to critical scrutiny. She argues that the
effect of the “mass media Presidency” is Janus-faced: on the one side, these shows
have inspired the public to believe in the possibility of a heroic president, provoking
idealistic responses; but on the other, it has exposed to a public to the seedy
underside of the political process, galvanizing their cynicism.
Bernard Kokinchak also navigates through a new area of investigation for
historians, combining his expertise in meteorology with environmental and military
history. Kokinchak’s work on weather modification programs for military use
during the Vietnam War era raises important questions about the political and
environmental implications of climate manipulation. The article in Clio is drawn
from Kokinchak’s Master’s thesis in History.
In “The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire of 1911: Resulting Labor Safety
Laws and Exemplary Action to Prevent the Preventable,” Marissa O’Loughlin
reconsiders the famous New York fire in light of more recent workplace tragedies.
She connects labor history and political analysis to clarify how conditions in the
American garment industry changed in the twentieth century, posing the question
of whether such reforms are feasible protections of garment workers
internationally.
Finally, Meagan English reviews two new books by members of the faculty in
the History Department at Western Connecticut State University, Dr. Jennifer Duffy
and Dr. Leslie Lindenauer. By combining a close reading of their texts with
2
�interviews with the authors, English is able to produce a deeper consideration of
both books.
These articles illustrate the robustness and vitality of history as a discipline,
as students and scholars use traditional methods and new perspectives in their
explorations of American society. As Gerda Lerner, a pioneer of women’s history,
argued in 1982, critics of history who contend that historical study is irrelevant
“define history too narrowly.” This year’s Clio demonstrates the willingness of
historians to use different lenses to interrogate the past.
On the Cover: American and French photographers with their cameras
during World War I.
Date: ca. 1918. Harry S. Truman Library.
3
�THE CLIO STAFF
Meagan English is a senior history major at Western and an editor of Clio. She is the
winner of the 2014 Herbert Janick prize in History for the best paper to be
published in Clio. In her nonexistent spare time, she enjoys photography, genealogy
and throwing pottery. Many years ago, she was an art major. She had two teenagers
-- Ryan and Catelyn, and due to her masochistic tendencies, she decided to take on
housetraining a puppy while writing her thesis. Both need work.
Nicholle Jejer is a senior at Western who will be graduating in May 2014 with a BA in
History. In addition to being an editor of CLIO, she is also a member of WCSU's
branch of the National Society of Leadership and Success, as well as the
National History Honor Society, Phi Alpha Theta. In her spare time Nicholle enjoys
reading historical fiction and non-fiction, watching movies, and hanging out with her
friends.
Sean Keenan is a senior history major at WCSU and an editor of Clio. He spent the
fall studying abroad in China and intends to attend a PhD program in Chinese
history in the near future.
Alicia Moniz is the President of Clio and an MA student in History at Western, having
completed her BA at Western Connecticut State University in History. Her focus is in
American history, primarily gender and family history. She is an artist, a genealogist,
and mother to five cats.
Marissa O’Loughlin is an undergraduate History and Political Science honors student
at WCSU. A majority of Marissa's studies have focused on American environmental
policy and American history. She is an avid yogi when she has time to breath and
fancies herself a poet when she has time to think.
Danielle Spino is a junior in History at Western and an editor of Clio.
Jared Stammer is a Graduate Student at WCSU. When not writing history papers, he
grows a five o'clock shadow, throws on his leather jacket, dons a fedora, grabs his
trusty whip, and rescues ancient artifacts from evil Nazi archaeologists seeking to
make their Swastika-Heiling armies invincible.
Wynn Gadkar-Wilcox is Associate Professor and Chair of History and Non-Western
Cultures and Co-Advisor of Clio. In his spare time, he sings with the Traveling Men
quartet, enjoys jogging, and plays the piano and saxophone. Though he writes on
Asian intellectual history, he is also very interested in poststructuralist philosophy,
nineteenth-century American poetry, and the nineteenth-century history of Africa
and Latin America.
Marcy May is Professor of History and co-Advisor to Clio. She is a historian of
twentieth-century America.
4
�
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May, Marcy
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Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
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ANCESTRY.COM’S FAMILY TREE: A PERSONAL HISTORY OR AN ORCHARD OF
DOUBTS?
Alicia Moniz
In previous eras, genealogy was reserved for royalty and was used to show their
elite lineage. With the current ubiquity of do-it-yourself websites like Ancestry.com,
however, genealogy has quickly grown as a popular hobby for many average people.
Therein lies the danger. Information is now available to everyone without any
standards or guidelines in place for the proper use the data that these sites provide.
The names, dates, and places listed on family trees are often submitted by users and
therefore not checked for accuracy. This is among the reasons why many historians,
like William Cronon, look down on genealogy as being a hobby and not a “good”
historical venture: “Genealogy is a wonderful pastime, but family trees should be
only the beginning of the historical adventure…We need to plant each of our family
trees in the larger forest of history.”1
What is “good” history? The ubiquitous nature of Ancestry.com poses this
very interesting question for academic historians. Are these websites a productive
use of history because they allow the every person to feel connected to the broader
historical picture? Or is Ancestry.com an abuse of history in that it is perpetuating
the fantasy these websites sell: that everyone is a descendent of royalty or fame, and
that with a click of a bouncing leaf one can grow an entire family tree (accuracy not
included)?
It is undeniable that Ancestry.com provides a great service; it is “without
question, the world's largest online collection of family history records and
resources.”2 Creating a family tree was once a daunting task involving long hours
and endless roadblocks. But the availability of facts and figures compiled on the
internet and just a few clicks away has made it possible for the average person to
piece together their own personal history. However, there is a glaring flaw to this
1
William Cronon, “Why the Past Matters,” Wisconsin Magazine of History S4 (Autumn
2000): 9.
2
“Ancestry.com – Mission and Values,” Ancestry.com, accessed April 15, 2013,
http://corporate.ancestry.com/careers/missionandvalues.
5
�service: standards. Ancestry.com writes on its own page that “members have
created more than 46 million family trees and added more than 4 billion profiles.”3
None of the 46 million family trees Ancestry.com boasts are checked. Until there are
some standards on accuracy Ancestry.com is doing all of its consumers a disservice.
The naïve, first time genealogist will be taken in by the names and the “shaky”
leaves.4 The leaves represent a hint on a family tree. These “hints” are distributed
when one gets a hint; it can be a census record, a marriage record, or another family
tree with the same name and details.
Yet these family trees are user-submitted. Thus, the consumer is forced to
rely on other people’s research, which may be of questionable accuracy. This
problem exists because Ancestry.com does not contribute to the family tree portion
of their service. The family trees allow users to put in a first name, last name, date
and place of birth. But the user can literally put any name into that space.
Unfortunately many abuse the trust that seems to be implied in creating their family
tree. It is quite easy to show that one is a descendant of royalty or famous people. In
fact, ancestry.com encourages this fantasy—that of connecting one’s self to a
particular lineage of well-known ancestors—for marketing purposes.
The tendency to mine historical sources to elevate one’s class status has a
long history that is not unique to ancestry.com. Consider the following 1900 poem
in which the residents of Bedford, New Hampshire try to connect themselves to
their colonial forebearers:
Written for the Occasion by a Young Lady
Pass on! Sons of Bedford, press on in your glory;
Pass on! Deck your brows with the bright wreaths of fame,
Generations, unborn, will rejoice at your story,
For history just waits now to take down each name.5
History can be used as a way to gain fame and recognition. It is unfortunate that
most of these stories have been forgotten through time and that now descendants
3
Ibid.
“Ancestry.com Commercial – Shakey Leaf,” last modified April 27, 2009,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ORmxCXmiIy4&list=UUTtRzqUPXKZkpVc8xSpzCqw&i
ndex=2.
5
Town of Bedford, New Hampshire, History of Bedford, New Hampshire, from 1737, being
4
statistics compiled on the occasion of the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the
incorporation of the town, May 15, 1900 (New Hampshire: The Rumford Printing Company,
1900), 78.
6
�are interested in uncovering their pasts by searching for stories that would provide
the notoriety of their ancestors. What is perceived as normal is far less interesting
or memorable than the unusual, and it is the latter that is largely touted by
Ancestry.com.
This aggrandizement does a disservice to those who innocently want to
discover their roots, since these people may be led astray, not realizing that
ancestry.com’s information is subject to potential manipulation and misuse. As Paul
Connerton argues, there can be a type of social or collective memory, but this
collective memory needs to be distinct from mere exercises in nostalgia or
manipulation: “We need to distinguish social memory from a more specific practice
that is best termed the activity of historical reconstruction.”6 The members of
Ancestry.com are treading closer to the historical reconstruction about which
Connerton warns than they are to his conception of social memory.
In Ancestry.com’s defense, the website does not claim in their mission
statement to be any sort of guide or standard. They are simply a collection of
historical documents offered to subscribers for a monthly rate. Copying a bunch of
pages from Ancestry.com and stapling it together to create a personal history is
sufficient for most people. They have physical evidence of their heritage. Those
pages are their personal collection of their history and there is validity in those
pages. “Collecting is a way of linking past, present, and future.”7 That is enough
satisfaction for many. But it is not “good” history.
The database on Ancestry contains lists of military records, census records,
and universal family trees. This is assuming that the records are accurate. Often,
customs officials incorrectly or tendentiously transliterated family names. It is also
an unfortunate fact that census records are good for finding an ancestor’s address or
family size, but they rarely reveal other information clearly. Some people choose not
to answer certain questions, especially the question of race. Another question that is
either not answered or answered inaccurately is the birth country of an ancestor.
There are many factors that went into the decision of not answering or falsifying
6
Paul Connerton, How Societies Remember (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press,
1989), 13.
7
William Davies King, Collections of Nothing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 4.
7
�census records:
Whether or not a person responded to the ancestry question, I
believe, depended on both cognitive and social psychological factors.
Those who had arrived recently in the United States and those
whose parents were first-generation immigrants knew that they had
an origin which distinguished them from most residents. Those who
were well educated learned much about our nation’s history, the
fluctuations in immigration policy, and the frequent racial and ethnic
conflicts. In brief, education brings an awareness that Americans
have foreign ‘roots,’ which leads individuals to respond to the
ancestry question.8
Does providing historical context for your family history make it “good” history? Or
is this still an abuse of historical practices? The inherent danger in writing about
your own family is where Ancestry.com plays a large role. A family may have a
verbally transmitted and accepted past. The use of Ancestry.com can either support
this past or debunk it.
Yet believing in an accepted family history can influence the present. These
family history myths can shape how people view themselves and their families. One
can look up an ancestor that one was verbally told fought in the Civil War and
discover what Ancestry.com has recorded. But is this a benefit, or is there wisdom in
leaving oral family traditions as they are? For these stories to come into existence
there must be a reason, such as shame, pride, or misinformation. An example of
shame would be a family that tells the story that they come from greater means. A
poor working class family could pass along the history that they were an upper class
family that did well for themselves and did not struggle because they were ashamed
of their heritage. An example of pride would be perpetrating a story that claims elite
or royal blood where it does not exist. Finally, an example of misinformation would
be passing down that a female ancestor was a member of Daughters of the American
Revolution when she was really a member of the lesser known activist group
Daughters of America.
These revisions of history are, on the surface, fairly passive and of the littlewhite-lie variety but over time they can become valued family lore. They can, and
8
Reynolds Farley, “The New Census Question about Ancestry: What Did It Tell Us?”
Demography 28 (1991): 414.
8
�most times do, have an impact on how people later view themselves. Sometimes it is
better not knowing; as Thomas Gray suggests, “Ignorance is bliss”. It can be better
living as you believe versus the unknown. “History is a dead thing brought to new
life. It is fragments of a past, dead and gone, resurrected by historians. It is in this
sense like Frankenstein’s monster. It threatens our versions of ourselves.”9 He
wants to examine how he fits into his family history. It is a way of placing yourself
into history. “The bigger the collection gets, the more completely it represents me
and my history.”10
Providing context is a key element of successfully investigating and writing
about personal histories. If one is able to look at the broader scheme of history and
place one’s family in it, then one has succeeded. For example, a family may easily
discover that their ancestors emigrated from Ireland to America on Ancestry.com.
Without examining or even being aware of the socio-economic decisions behind that
move, an important element of context—why they may have come—is lost.
Academic historians would consider this a failure, since the mere fact of an
emigration is missing the bigger picture. For example, a mere tree on Ancestry does
not illuminate the plight of landless peasants during the potato famine of the 1840s,
many of whom subsequently came to the United States: “And in this parish you, and
your fathers before you, knew what it was to starve because you did not own your
own land – and that has increased this unappeasable hunger for land.”11 Here in that
story the family connects themselves to the land and understands history is about
more than just the people who came before. There is a personal connection that ties
you to your ancestors. This view of their lives provides an explanation, certainly not
the whole, of why they would emigrate. Focusing on your own family is done for
many reasons: to find out who you are, to find out where you have come from, or to
simply learn about the past:
It’s as when following the others’ lines,
Which are the tracks of somebody gone before,
Leaving me mischievous clues, telling me who
They were and who it was they weren’t,
9
Richard White, Remembering Ahanagran: Storytelling in a Family’s Past (New York: Hill
and Wang, 1998), 21.
10
William Davies King, Collections of Nothing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008),
93.
11
John B. Keane: The Field (Ireland: Mercier Press, 1991).
9
�And who it is I am because of them,
Or, just for the moment, reading them, I am,
Although the next moment I’m back in myself, and lost.12
This poem by David Ferry perfectly sums up the feeling that historians get. An
important and disappointing fact is that you can never reconnect to your past
ancestors. They are gone. Nothing, not learning their birth date or visiting their
grave, will bring them back. It is also impossible to recreate the past. What has
occurred in the past is gone and will never be experienced again. As close as
genealogy can make one feel to one’s ancestors, it unfortunately will never make
them alive. Genealogy can make history too personal, and there “is a general feeling
among professionals that outsiders care too much or, perhaps more precisely,
assume self-centeredly that others care as much as they do: they take history too
personally.”13 This is why when you go into genealogy you need to be aware of
context. Find your family’s history and then place it in the bigger picture. Richard
White does this with his family’s personal history titled Remembering Ahanagran.
His family is great at providing context and relation for him, especially his mother
Sara Walsh White:
Her stories are about people she knew, about places she lived, about
the relations she established with the world…She does not
understand herself as people who write autobiographies usually
understand themselves. She does not see herself as a distinctive self,
developing as she journeys through the world. She speaks more
casually about others than about herself. It is the relations with
others that matter; it is these relations that have defined the world
she has known and made.14
Providing context, showing relation, and expressing the truth is what makes Richard
White’s personal history, and many others like it, “good.” White is able, through
contextual interpretation, to relate his story with those of Irish emigrants and those
with Irish heritage. He looks at his family’s past through old stories and memories.
He describes his method as living “in this junkyard of the past. I haul pieces into the
12
David Ferry, “Ancestral Lines,” Poetry Magazine, January 2012.
Benjamin Filene, “Passionate Histories: ‘Outsider’ History-Makers and What They Teach
Us,” The Public Historian 34 (Winter 2012): 20.
14
Richard White, Remembering Ahanagran, 16.
13
10
�present, and there they confront my mother’s memories.”15 The problem with
memory is that it is faulty. It is part of the human condition to misremember.
Another problem is attempting to remember a time and place you have never been
to. However historians do this frequently. They research and read accounts so that
they can analyze what happened. Ancestry.com does not offer any time lines, not
any placement in historical context. It is cut and dry numbers and names. The
“good” genealogist should consider this a starting point to build a full personal
history.
Ancestry.com has created a fantastic business plan offering family histories
which are compiled and added onto by their customers- without the hassle of
needing proof as to its truth- and with a hefty price tag. Genius! Their business
grows exponentially as customers connect the dots of their families online. As of
April 15, 2013 the advertised price on Ancestry.com,
http://www.ancestry.com/cs/offers/subscribe, to access records only pertaining to
the United States is $19.95 per month or $99 for six months. If the subscriber has
ancestors from other nations then they need to upgrade to the World Traveler
which is $29.95 per month or $149 for six months. Ancestry.com has also not been
shy about buying out smaller websites that provided the same documents for less
money or even free. They list on their website a chronological timeline of their
acquisitions and their major successes. While they have provided a great service it is
also interesting how capitalist this website promoting family and history has
become. Should Ancestry.com be putting a price on historical documents? There are
other sites that do not have the flashy commercials but provide the same service for
free, websites that have yet to be purchased by the massive conglomerate that
Ancestry.com has become. Familysearch.org is a great alternative to Ancestry.com
and is run by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. It provides the same
type of service: family trees, search functions for the United States and search
functions for European nations at the cost of zero dollars.
There is perhaps in American culture a certain mentality that does not value
services that are provided for free; as the dollar signs go up, so does the so-called
importance of the service. This mentality also benefits Ancestry.com. The average
15
Ibid., 21.
11
�consumer of genealogy may also not be interested in searching for free services
because of the high profile of Ancestry.com. It is an extremely popular website that
just continues to grow and expand. That expansion has shifted from helping people
find their ancestors to putting a price on what should be public historical
information. Public records, census and baptism records should not have a price tag
and yet on Ancestry.com they do. The consumer is paying a price for
decontextualized information that they could receive for free.
In conclusion, there is sufficient information to show that because of
Ancestry.com’s lack of standards on the contribution of information and lack of
contextualization, is a detriment to the overall profession of history. Ancestry.com is
both a blessing and a curse to history. It is a blessing in that it provides historical
documents and excites people about history. However, it is a curse in that it
commodifies history and limits its accessibility on to those wealthy enough to afford
its monthly fee. This brings genealogy back full circle by limiting its consumption.
Ancestry.com can be used as a tool for personal histories if you are cognizant of its
flaws and use the raw material while fact checking any use of the family trees.
“Good” history should be about being accurate and discovering the truth. Genealogy
and personal histories have shown to be “good” use of history as long as context and
relation is provided. Ancestry.com can lead you to finding context if you sift through
all that is presented. But relation should be an enforceable standard for personal
history and accuracy should be an enforceable standard for Ancestry.com.
12
�
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Vol. 40, num. 1, Clio - 2014
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Title
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ANCESTRY.COM’S FAMILY TREE: A PERSONAL HISTORY OR AN ORCHARD OF DOUBTS?
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Moniz, Alicia
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2014-05
Description
An account of the resource
8 pgs
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._40_num._1_Clio_-_2014/226/clio2.pdf
43e3d83cb782c5d93dd88d7770567f6e
PDF Text
Text
DIVORCE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY CONNECTICUT
Meagan English
Women entering into marriage in Connecticut in the nineteenth century found
themselves forsaking their own identity for that of their husbands. The marital
contract and resulting coverture disallowed wives not only the same rights as their
husbands, but also those rights they possessed prior to marriage. While marriage in
Connecticut evolved from being considered in the ecclesiastical domain into being
understood as a legislative issue prior to the nineteenth century, it was not until the
late nineteenth century that marriages became a contract dispute left to the judicial
system to resolve. Buoyed by the emancipationist rhetoric in post-Civil War
America, spheres of political activism by radical feminists emerged in direct
response to the oppression of women within the bonds of marriage; legislators,
hoping to appease and subdue protesters, broadened the definition of marital
cruelty and bestowed marginal property rights to wives seeking divorce. As a
result, examination of divorce judgments in late nineteenth century Connecticut
exhibit a marked increase in favor of women's equality within the marital contract
and also in the event of its dissolution.
Connecticut's approach to divorce proceedings has always been liberal in
comparison with other colonies and states. While many of the early colonial
settlements referred to English policies as a model, the Puritan settlements in
Connecticut chose a different course. Rather than handling divorce matters solely as
an ecclesiastical issue as the English had, the Puritans aimed for unified
communities free of discord, and set about to handle divorce as a civil matter
decided through legislative means so as to maintain peace within their colony. In
discussing a 1640 statute on banns, historian Henry S. Cohn notes, “these men were
determined to adopt a progressive approach to divorce and find a place for this
action in civil society as a means of eliminating community strife. Thus not only did
Connecticut throw off the ‘shackles’ of the English ecclesiastical court, but also chose
13
�to avoid the freedoms of the other colonies in developing its divorce procedure.”16
Throughout most of the Connecticut colony during this period, the General
Court, serving as both a legislative body and a judicial office, granted divorces
without predetermined grounds, and did so rather freely after attempts had been
made to reconcile the parties. While the towns of Windsor, Hartford, and
Wethersfield comprised the Connecticut colony, the New Haven colony was first to
make divorce a solely judicial matter, decreeing that divorces must only be granted
with proof of adultery, conjugal neglect, and desertion.17 Upon the union of these
colonies in a post-revolutionary Connecticut, divorce procedures merged, forming a
complex system involving elements of both legislative and judicial bodies. As Cohn
concludes, “the use of the judiciary, the penal nature of the grounds for divorce, and
the strict procedural framework seen in these New Haven laws were to influence
the future development of divorce in Connecticut.”18 No longer would divorces be
ruled upon haphazardly. Instead, husbands and wives seeking divorce found
themselves in a maze of court proceedings, with appeals directed to the General
Assembly for ruling, until the early nineteenth century when the Supreme Court of
Errors was created. Moreover, with fewer resources and a subordinate role within
the home, women felt the burden of proof fall predominantly upon their shoulders.
In analyzing divorce cases and appeals from early nineteenth century
Connecticut, one can witness the legal and legislative supplication of women within
marriage. In the case of Delliber v. Delliber (1832), Mrs. Delliber sought a divorce
from her incarcerated husband. Though Mr. Delliber had been imprisoned for
adultery, Mrs. Delliber engaged in sexual intercourse with her husband after his
imprisonment, fulfilling her marital duties as she believed was expected of her, her
counsel argued. In doing so, the Supreme Court of Errors—as Connecticut’s
Supreme Court was called in the nineteenth century—found that she had forfeited
her right to a divorce on the grounds of adultery, ruling that:
The remedy by divorce is a civil and private prosecution under the
control of the party aggrieved; and he may avail himself of it, or bar
16
Henry S. Cohn, "Connecticut's Divorce Mechanism: 1636-1969," The American Journal of
Legal History, 14 (1970): 37.
17
18
Ibid., 38.
Ibid., 39.
14
�himself, by his own act...If the husband or wife, subsequently to the
adultery of the correlate, and after the just grounds of belief in his or
her guilt, cohabits, it is, in judgment of law, a condonatio injuriae, a
remission or pardon of the offence and a bar to the divorce.19
Given the limited opportunities for women outside of marriage during this period,
as well as the societal pressure to keep the family unit together under patriarchal
control, it is not unfathomable that Mrs. Delliber would hesitate to divorce initially,
despite her husband's transgressions. Per the attorneys for Mrs. Delliber was
“presumed to be under the power of the husband; and cohabitation may have arisen
from coercion.”20
In another case, Shaw v. Shaw (1845), Emeline Shaw petitioned the court for
dissolution of her marriage to Daniel Shaw on the grounds of intolerable cruelty.
Mr. Shaw, according to his wife, was habitually verbally abusive to her, calling her
“an old imp of hell” and “worse than the women at the Five Points in New York.”21
Though she was medically fragile, Mr. Shaw used force to exert his conjugal rights,
fully knowing of her ill health. He often flew into jealous rages and forbade her from
leaving the home even to visit family; at one point, Mrs. Shaw fled the house,
escaping out a window.22 Despite such torturous threats to her health and
emotional well-being, the court ruled in Mr. Shaw's favor. According to the opinion
of the court:
Jealousy is the rage of a man…the fancies of a jealous man are as
ungovernable as those of a madman, and often show themselves as
suspicious of their best friends. But the unreasonable exercise of the
authority of a husband, in such case, has never been held to be that
kind of cruelty, which would authorize a separation.23
With regard to forcing his wife to occupy a bed with him, the court concluded that
while it was certainly detrimental to her health, and Mr. Shaw was aware of this, he
did not intend to physically harm her, therefore it did not constitute cruelty: “The
unfortunate victim of this passion is indeed to be pitied; but the law furnishes no
remedy for conduct like this…The court cannot draw a line by which his authority
19
Delliber v. Delliber. 9 Conn. 233(1832)
Delliber v. Delliber. 9 Conn. 233(1832)
21
Shaw V. Shaw. 17 Conn. 189 (1845)
22
Shaw V. Shaw. 17 Conn. 189 (1845)
23
Shaw V. Shaw. 17 Conn. 189 (1845)
20
15
�can be restrained.”24 A mere three years prior to the convention at Seneca Falls, in a
state considered progressive for the period, and the Shaw divorce stands as a prime
example of the patriarchal power men held within marriage and how few options
women faced in terminating intolerable marriages within an exclusively maleoperated judicial and legislative system.
With divorce on the rise, an already confusing and inefficient system became
overwhelmed with cases. In 1849, Connecticut sought to remedy its divorce debacle
by passing the Act of 1849, providing “the great majority of grounds for divorce -including intolerable cruelty and destruction of the marital happiness -- were placed
in the Superior Court. The Superior Court was to have 'sole and exclusive
jurisdiction of all petitions for divorce'.”25 A more streamlined divorce process
facilitated greater numbers of persons seeking to dissolve their marriage access the
system, including the working class, a group on the increase due to the rapid rise in
industrialization during this period.
Yet the rapid upswing in divorces cases also arose on the heels of the Civil
War, as feminist rhetoric increasingly utilized the language of emancipation to
champion the cause of women's rights in matters of marriage, property, and
suffrage. Historian Robert L. Griswold details the astronomical rise in divorce rates
-- “From 1867 to 1906, United States courts granted 328,716 divorces; in the next
twenty years, the number jumped to 945,625, far outstripping the proportionate
rise in population….divorces granted to wives on the grounds of cruelty jumped 960
percent.”26 Feminists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Victoria Woodhull viewed
the patriarchal structure of marriage as oppressive and in dire of need of change to
a more companionate model resting on individual rights. Woodhull denounces
marriage in 1873, using the language of slavery: “[I] would rather be the labor slave
of a master, with his whip cracking continually about my ears than the forced sexual
slave of any man in any single hour…”27 In her publication The Revolution, Elizabeth
24
Shaw V. Shaw. 17 Conn. 189 (1845)
25
Henry S. Cohn, "Connecticut's Divorce Mechanism: 1636 -1969," The American Journal of
Legal History, 14 (1970): 47.
26
Robert L. Griswold, "Law, Sex, Cruelty, and Divorce in Victorian A merica, 1840-1900,"
American Quarterly, 38 (1986): 722.
27
Ibid., 733.
16
�Cady Stanton regularly preached about the necessity to reform marriage and break
the bonds which hold woman back. An article published in The Revolution on April
9, 1868 entitled, “Woman Wronged”, Dr. Thomas W. Organ opines, “That truth is:
every woman possesses the inherent right to the full and perfect control of her own
person, in or out of the marriage relation. This is Revolution….This is the radical
basis for women to stand upon, while fighting for her emancipation from this social
and political slavery, to which she is so heathenishly consigned by the customs and
laws of the age.”28 Stanton herself pontificated in The Revolution about the woes of
wives and their deserved human rights as individuals:
If a man sell a horse, and the purchaser find in him
“great incompatibility of temper” --a disposition to
stand still when the owner is in haste to go -- the sale
is null and void; the man and his horse part
company…You all know our marriage is, in many
cases, a mere outward lie, impelled by custom, policy,
interest, necessity; founded not even in friendship, to
say nothing of love; with every possible inequality of
condition and development…can there be anything
sacred where brute force makes sacrifice of human
beings -- of the weak and the innocent?...Call that
sacred, where woman, the mother of the race…[is]
held there by no tie but the iron chains of the law.29
Stanton harkened back to the verbiage of the Declaration of Independence a mere
week prior, when she claimed that “an unmarried woman can make contracts, sue
and be sued, enjoy the rights of property, to her inheritance, her wages, her person,
her children; but in marriage, in many of the states, she is robbed by law of her
natural and civil rights…It is only in marriage, that she must demand her rights to
person, children, property, wages, life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”30 The
language used by these crusaders was not accidental; rather, the language was
prudently chosen to draw a parallel between slaves and wives, and as slaves had
been granted their emancipation, so should women. Historian Elizabeth B. Clark
states, “In the post-Civil War period, the rhetoric of divorce changed dramatically as
28
Dr. Thomas W. Organ, "Woman Wronged." The Revolution, (April 9, 1868).
Elizabeth Cady Stanton, "Marriage and Divorce." The Revolution (October 22. 1868).
30
Elizabeth Cady Stanton, "Marriages and Mistresses." The Revolution, October 15, 1868.
29
17
�the language of rights replaced that of duty to God and children.”31 Women, both in
marriage and outside of it, were to be treated as individuals and bestowed equal
rights in accordance with the principles set forth in the Declaration of
Independence. Clark continues, “The women's rights movement's reliance on the
mechanisms of human law grew reciprocally with the government's administration
of equal protection standards through statutes and constitutional amendments.”32
By adopting the lexicon of slavery, the hot-button issue of the time, feminists
grabbed the attention of the public, capitalizing on the outcome of the Civil War in
the hopes of garnering more support for individual rights of women. Employing the
language of assault, associated with the treatment of slaves, to describe the
maltreatment of wives, advocates for equitable and accessible divorce yielded
compassion for their cause.
Evidence of this shift toward a more progressive divorce mechanism can be
discovered in Connecticut cases after the Civil War. In Mayhew v. Mayhew (1891),
Mrs. Mayhew petitioned the court for a divorce on the grounds of intolerable
cruelty. Much like the Shaw case, Mrs. Mayhew suffered from ill health, and while
she did not consent to conjugal relations, Mr. Mayhew forced his wife to submit to
him under the guise of marital duty. The court found “the acts were attended by
danger and fear, and injury to the plaintiff and to her health, and were rashly and
roughly and unreasonably done; and each of them when the defendant knew the
condition of the plaintiff and the suffering and injury it would be likely to inflict on
her, and her inability to properly and safely accede to his wishes.”33 The defendant
makes light of the Shaw ruling as a precedent for intolerable cruelty; however, the
court opined that his callous treatment of Mrs. Mayhew was “brutal” and
“unendurable.”34 The court then made a statement illuminating the progress made
in marriage equality:
Marital rights exist on the part of the wife as distinctly as on the part
of the husband…Any decision of what constitutes intolerable cruelty
in these matters that should leave out of consideration the duty of
31
Elizabeth B. Clark, "Matrimonial Bonds: Slavery and Divorce in Nineteenth -century
America," Law and History Review, 8 (1990):30.
32
Ibid., 31.
33
Mayhew v. Mayhew. 61 Conn. 33 (1891)
34
Ibid.
18
�the husband and look only to the duty of the wife, would be
manifestly erroneous.35
Such a court opinion elucidates the paramountcy of individual rights within a union
of husband and wife -- a denotation previously absent in divorce decisions.
A subsequent case, Morehouse v. Morehouse, provides evidence of the
change of attitude of the Supreme Court of Errors over time, as the facts of the case
are parallel with Delliber, but the conclusion is not. Minnie Morehouse filed for
dissolution of marriage on the basis of adultery, habitual intemperance, and
intolerable cruelty. While her claims of adultery and intemperance were disproved,
the court awarded Mrs. Morehouse a divorce after finding her husband intolerably
cruel. Mrs. Morehouse grappled with the effects of a heart condition, of which the
defendant was aware, yet he physically forced her to submit to intercourse with
him, and in the process, transmitted a venereal disease to her.36 Mrs. Morehouse left
the marital home only to return, despite being aware of her husband's abusive
tendencies. Despite her return, and unlike the Delliber case, the court decided in her
favor. Contradicting the Delliber ruling, the court ruled Minnie's return to the
marital residence did not signify a pardon of her husband's transgressions. This
decision illuminates the courts' better understanding of the plight of women torn
between leaving and staying within the home as a financial necessity. The issue of
cohabitation in the face of cruelty or other ills no longer stood as a hindrance in
obtaining a divorce.
Property rights, and the freedom they afford women, factor into divorce as
they can provide a greater chance of self-support for a woman exiting her marriage.
In 1845, Connecticut enacted legislation aimed at enforcing equitable marriage
settlements. Previously, according to Marylynn Salmon, Connecticut behaved
conservatively on such matters:
the first married women's property act in Connecticut may have
resulted from continuing judicial refusal to enforce equitable
principles on marriage settlements…in Jones v. Aetna Insurance Co.
(1842), a case involving a married woman's separate estate, the
chief justice of the Superior Court 'airily dismissed' the applicable
35
Ibid.
36
Morehouse v. Morehouse. 70 Conn. 420. (1898)
19
�equity principles. Similarly, in Middleton v. Mather (1843), the same
court refused to enforce a postnuptial agreement between husband
and wife, expressing its disapproval of separate estates.37
Salmon concludes this legislation propelled women in Connecticut forward
enormously, as the legislation solidified the rights of women to hold their own
property separately from that of their husband, both in and out of marriage, making
divorce settlements enforceable. In an increasingly industrial workforce that saw
more women laboring outside the home, women sought control over the earnings.
By 1887, two-thirds of states had passed earnings legislation, according to Amy Dru
Stanley, who elaborates: “the earnings legislation was not part of any sweeping plan
by state assemblies to redraft the law of husband and wife. Passed in 'piecemeal'
fashion, it aimed to preserve 'marital rights' but also to 'emancipate' the wife to
enter into wage contracts and facilitate her dealings with third parties in the
marketplace.”38 While women prior to changes in property and earnings legislature
hesitated to leave their husbands due to not only the social stigma attached to
divorce, but their inability to be self-sufficient outside of marriage, these laws were
at least a small measure of comfort for women, compelling some who would not
otherwise leave an intolerable marriage to divorce.
One Connecticut case explicates the increased property rights of wives. In
Foot v. Card, the wife of Enos Foot sued his mistress for alienation of affection and
won her case. Ms. Card and Mr. Foot carried on an extramarital liaison lasting
fifteen years, for which the wife sought damages. The court determined, “of legal
necessity, therefore, damages for injury to this right must be to her solely. If the law
should permit the husband to share therein, it would be to the extent of such share
to deny justice.”39 Prior to this case and the establishment of property laws in the
mid-century, husbands could sue for damages related to the failure to fulfill marital
duties as a wife's affection was considered the valuable property of the husband;
this consideration was not extended to wives. Such a ruling demonstrates clearly
the right women gained not only as far as property was concerned, but
37
Marylynn Salmon, Women and the Law of Property in Early America (University of North
Carolina Press: Chapel Hill, 1986),139.
38
Amy Dru Stanley, "Conjugal Bonds and Wage Labor: Rights of Contract in the Age of
Emancipation," The Journal of American History, 75 (1988): 482.
39
Foot vCard, 58 Conn. 1, (1889)
20
�consideration as an individual, rather than the property of her father or husband, as
was the case with coverture.
Historians face a conundrum, however, in attempting to determine the
intentions of judges and legislators in a patriarchal society. Stanley observes,
“Legislators…do not seem to have drawn deliberate lesson from the demise of
slavery. They appear to have responded to more immediate pressures, to signs of
distress in working-class marriages and to the explanations feminists advanced for
the plight of laboring wives.”40 Norma Basch cautions that scholarship on divorce
and property laws is incomplete, with legal and social historians taking different
approaches in analysis.41 Despite this, evidence clearly delineates a shift in divorce
practices in eighteenth century Connecticut, with the Civil War serving as a
crossroads of sorts. Certainly, the rise of the female workforce contributed to
increased advocacy for women's civil rights, yet one cannot ignore the impact of the
language used by feminists of the period. Capitalizing on the fervor of emancipation
and life in a postbellum society, feminists employed language meant to incite
outrage at the treatment of women within the bonds of marriage, and evoke
compassion for their plight. Whether all-male legislative bodies bowed to the
pressure of the feminist lobby when creating and passing legislation or they strove
to alleviate the burdens of women in intolerable marriages, divorce in nineteenth
century Connecticut illustrates a greater shift in the treatment and view of American
women and their roles within the home and in the community as a whole. One must
not measure progress by great leaps forward, but rather a succession of smaller
steps -- the progress made in Connecticut during this period paved the way for other
steps on the path to equality.
40
Stanley, "Conjugal Bonds,”484.
Norma Basch, "The Emerging Legal History of Women in the United States: Property,
Divorce and the Constitution", Signs, 12 (1986):110.
41
21
�
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DIVORCE IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY CONNECTICUT
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English, Meagan
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BETWEEN CINEMATIC AND SIMULATION?
APPROACHING MICROHISTORY IN VIDEO GAMES
Leigh Scudder
On September 23, 1944, Sergeant Matt Baker of the 101st Airborne Division, 502nd
Parachute Infantry Regiment, sat disguised behind a wrecked car with his squad
mates somewhere in southeastern Holland. He was on a causeway littered with
burning vehicles and corpses, experiencing heavy fire and artillery from German
forces in nearly every direction. Baker had also just watched as his close friend and
squad mate, Sam Corrion, was shot through the chest while running towards a
nearby car for cover only meters away. Corrion slumped, critically wounded, and for
the next ten minutes Baker and his squad fought, outmanned and outgunned, to
reopen the causeway and retreat.
The scenario just described took place in the heat of the botched Operation
Market Garden, the attempt in 1944 to flank German forces through Holland and
“end the war by Christmas.” With the exception of the operation, though, this
scenario never took place. None of the named soldiers ever existed. It is not from a
novel, a film, or a radio drama, but from the 2008 video game Brothers in Arms:
Hell’s Highway. Such a photorealistic yet fictional account and interpretation of the
Second World War has sold thousands of copies and should interest historians and
social scientists alike. That it requires the viewer to interact with and “play” the
scenario, though, requires a double take.
History is being created not by just people at desks writing footnotes, but by
people sitting at desks and writing code. Scholarship investigating the cultural
influence of the video game is young, and the influence historical video games will
have on the public’s memory and understanding of history is not yet fully
comprehended. Most published works on video games are less than a decade old.
The sudden explosion of academic studies of gaming is the result of newly trained
researchers entering the field. These researchers often belong to the first
generation of consumers to have had these video games as a significant aspect of
22
�their leisure time during their upbringing.42
Though this nascent avenue of historical research is still in an experimental
phase, its continued expansion, not to mention the recognition of its legitimacy, is
crucial to the future of the historical profession for several reasons. First, a
significant number of video games are placed in historical settings, albeit with
varying degrees of historical accuracy. Second, the video game industry is massive.
It was predicted in 2012 that the global industry would grow from $67 billion to $82
billion by 2017.43 In November 2010, the first-person shooter game Call of Duty:
Black Ops, a significant portion of which takes place during various cold war
conflicts, broke an industry record with $360 million in its first day of sales.44
Moreover, these numbers do not account for those who experience video games
through renting, borrowing from friends, “demoing” in retails or from online
downloads, nor do they consider how many games are illegally downloaded or
“pirated”—a phenomenon that the industry claims is a growing threat. Third, the
vast majority of those who play video games set in history have no experience in
historical analysis beyond that which they obtained from secondary education.
Fourth, video game technology is advancing much more quickly than other media of
historical storytelling. A historical film from 2005 and another from 2008 would be
difficult to distinguish visually. In contrast, video games, gameplay and visuals
changed drastically during the same period of time. Finally, most historical video
games are micro-histories set in and around conflict. Compare this to history in film
and literature, which are rife with macro and micro-historical accounts of not only
conflict but politics, art, romance, industry, disease and religion, and the scope of
historical events that can really challenge one and be “played” are quite slim.
In this article, I attempt to apply various recent theories set out to
42
Jason Rutter, and Jo Bryce, as cited in Whalen, Zach, and Laurie N. Taylor, “An
Introduction,” in Playing the Past: history and nostalgia in video games, ed. Zach Whalen and
Laurie N. Taylor (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2008): 4.
43
John Gaudiosi, "New Reports Forecast Global Video Game Industry Will Reach $82 Billion
by 2017," Forbes, July 18, 2012,
http://www.forbes.com/sites/johngaudiosi/2012/07/18/new-reports-forecasts-globalvideo-game-industry-will-reach-82-billion-by-2017.
44
Gabriel Midway and Liana Baker, “Activision Says Black Ops First -Day Sales a Record,”
Reuters, November 11, 2010, http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/11/11/us activisionblizzard-idUSTRE6AA3EM20101111.
23
�understand historical video games, focusing on action games often with a “shooting”
element, to show the relationship between cinema and video games. I have chosen
this genre because it is one I have the most experience playing, and also assert that
these games’ micro histories provide the most intimate experience with historical
narratives.45 Also, I would argue that these action games are the best selling of
historical games in the industry and we need to consider what digitized portrayals
of conflict can do to historical memory. The Entertainment Software Association
(ESA) reported in 2011 that the majority of console games sold that year were part
of the “action” and “shooter” genre, at 19% and 18.4% respectively.46 Many works of
historical video games up until now have focused on the strategy genre, which are
games usually invoking “top-down” mechanics. The player has a bird’s-eye view
through which they build and maintain armies while trying to develop some sort of
infrastructure or civilization to defend. These macro-history games take place in
settings as far back as ancient times. Contrasting the console sales, the ESA says in
the same year a majority of games, after the role playing genre, sold for the
computer were of this strategy genre, at 27.6 percent.47 This likely accounts for the
multiple levels of play that need to be balanced by the player at a time and the
processing power required that only a personal computer can provide.48
Historical video games of the action/shooter genres should be approached
first and foremost as a sort of simulation of a narrative in history. When playing
these games, inputs and maneuvers are enacted to respond to some sort of stimulus
taking place on the screen. If “Mexican Bandit” is shooting at the player’s character,
for example, he will respond accordingly, and he uses his hands to press the specific
buttons to complete the action. On the subject of digital media, Claudio Fogu writes
that the “ability to make us forget the medium, and thus achieve an immersive effect
45
In video game dialect, “genre” most often is used to describe not the subject matter of the
game, but the gameplay, or, how the player plays the subject matter.
46
‘Game Player Data,” http://www.theesa.com/facts/gameplayer.asp. Statistics available as
of time of writing, April 2013.
47
The role playing genre involves various and highly mathematically based combat
scenarios, typically in a fantasy or science fictio n setting. Historical role playing video games
are scarce.
48
The strategy genre is the video game genre most often experimented with by educators.
See Andrew McMichael, “PC Games and the Teaching of History,” The History Teacher 40
(2007): 203-218.
24
�of presence (immediacy), depends on their mimicking the logic of a reality in which
media are ever present and we are used to their presence as part of our reality”
(emphasis in original). In other words, this sort of interactive media is possible
because it actually doesn’t look interactive at all, but simply there. He supports this
by saying that one could enjoy the classic game Pong, due to its presentation being
comparable to the aerial view of a sporting event.49
Such an immersive effect is observable in today’s video games and is equally
prominent in historical games. James Campbell’s analysis of simulation in World
War II first-person shooter games can be applied to historical games as well. This
genre of video game takes its name from the experience of play, for what is
portrayed on screen is what a soldier would see. Only the soldier’s arms and gun are
visible, as if he was looking straight ahead, and thus the player simulates the soldier,
and therefore the war experience. Campbell proposes that the World War II shooter
pays more tribute to World War II film than to history, and that this is likely because
more people have experienced dramatic portrayals of war than the actual war itself.
Campbell argues that “the adjective ‘cinematic’ is consistently used in advertising,
reviews, and fan sites for these games.” It is likely not a coincidence that the heyday
of the World War II shooter coincided with blockbusters like Saving Private Ryan
(1998), Band of Brothers (2001), and Enemy at the Gates (2001). Not only do these
films and games share the same war, but the games also tend have scenes that are
obvious tributes to their predecessors in film.50
In fact, the influence of film on how we visualize the past, and what it must
have been like to experience, are obvious in many. Some games, like the 2011 L.A.
Noire are very explicit in their tribute to the golden age of film noire, and thus,
reflect how we visualize post-war Los Angeles. In the game L.A. Noire one
experiences the police career of LAPD detective Cole Phelps in 1947. Unlike a firstperson perspective, in LAN one plays Phelps from a third person perspective, as if
one were standing some feet behind him. This enables Phelps to be more of an
individual, as if he were a character in a film. As is prevalent in film noir, Phelps is
49
Claudio Fogu, “Digitalizing Historical Consciousness,” History and Theory, Theme Issue 47
(2009): 104
50
James Campbell, “Just Less Than Total War: simulating World War II as Ludic nostalgia,” in
Whalen and Taylor, 186.
25
�seen as the last heart-of-gold honest cop in a Los Angeles plagued by corruption and
cynicism. The game is told in an episodic manner; successfully completing one case
leads into another. Each new case is presented on a title card modeled after the
opening of classic crime film noir, with titles like “A Slip of the Tongue” or “The
Naked City,” fading from black and white into color. As is familiar in cinema and
television concerning criminal investigation, the first scene of each case shows the
murder from an incomplete perspective (we see the victim moments before they fall
prey to a shadowy figure) so as to excite the player but not spoil the case they are
about to participate in. To further celebrate the cinema we are simulating, the player
has the option to toggle between playing the game in color or black-and-white if
they choose. One Los Angeles historian concludes that “despite striving for accuracy
using period photos, its setting seems derived from a mental picture that comes
mostly from cinema, the harvest of 60 years of movie noir.”51
The aforementioned Brothers in Arms: Hell’s Highway is the 2008 third
main installment to the Brothers in Arms series that began in 2005. The game
follows the same squads of the very real 101st Airborne Division, though the squads
are made up of characters that never existed or are at least amalgamations of real
people. While the first two games in the series followed the combat experience of
the 101st Airborne in Normandy, a unit popularized by its depiction in the 2001 HBO
miniseries Band of Brothers. Hell’s Highway continues with Operation Market
Garden in Holland. Also like episodes in the miniseries, missions begin with a simple
text title on a black overlay, with a subheading showing the time and place of the
event you are about to endure. The game shifts between a first-person and thirdperson perspective of the fictitious Sgt. Matt Baker, and intertwines historical fact
with narrated reflections of how his relationship with his estranged World War I
veteran father has molded him into the soldier he is. These narrations are told
through cutscenes. Cutscenes, the non-playable and pre-programmed sequences
used to advance the story in between sequences of gameplay, show Baker battling
his sense of guilt over the death of some of his men. Sometimes he imagines them
there with him, conversing with him from the dead. They are familiar cinematic
51
Norman M. Klein, “L.A. Noire: Perspectives from a SoCal Historian,” L.A. Weekly, June 9,
2011, http://www.laweekly.com/2011-06-09/art-books/l-a-noire-perspectives-from-asocal-historian.
26
�techniques used to visualize emotion. Cinematic techniques extend to the gameplay
as well in a disturbing fashion, in instances where the game zooms in on an enemy
and slows down when the player executes a shot to the head on an enemy, or when
the player causes an explosion that dismembers an enemy fighter. The sequences
balance something of a sense of accomplishment or skill by the player and the
horrors of war.
Video games concerning the American Frontier, along with most video
games, started to become popular in the 70’s, coinciding with the birth of the
Revisionist Western genre and the retiring of the Spaghetti Western genre that
enchanted moviegoers. In 2004, the third-person action game Red Dead Revolver
was released. Red Dead Revolver fits more into the Spaghetti Western, and the
game’s soundtrack borrows music from Ennio Marcone, famous for his prolific
career composing for films including the classic The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
(1966) and other Spaghetti Westerns. In Red Dead Revolver you play in the 1880’s
as Red Harlow, a bounty hunter seeking to uncover the conspiracy that killed his
gold-mining father when Red was a child. Red meets a colorful cast of characters
both good (a pistol spinning Englishman who is a living, breathing stereotype) and
bad (the corrupt governor with southern charm who ordered the death of Red’s
father). That the game’s main villain is a politician who commands a less than
scrupulous militia is another trait that is common in the Revisionist Western. It is
faithful to the Spaghetti Western from the outset; a video that plays by default when
starting the game plays Marcone-esque music, and reads “Read Dead
Revolver…starring…,” and the various characters are introduced. This whole
sequence, as well as other cutscenes in the game, is played beneath a grainy-film
filter that is so relatable to the film technology of decades past. Willis claims that
“video game designers exploited a populist international understanding of U.S.
history and iconography based around Hollywood conventions. They simulated an
already simulated West that was comprehended by all.”52 Is the player about to play
a video game, or an interactive movie?
Film producers and video game developers alike insist on meticulous
52
John Willis, “Pixel Cowboys and Silicon Gold Mines: Videogames of the American West,”
Pacific Historical Review 77 (2008): 280-1.
27
�research put into their works. Even if film is utilized in presentation, video games
still prove an understanding and mapping of history. The story in L.A. Noire is
advanced by completing the episodic “cases” that require and direct the player to
certain locations within the game’s world, but they all take place in a digitally
recreated 1947 Los Angeles. L.A. Noire, is a member of the open world sub-genre of
video games, where an environment is provided that has more to explore than what
the game requires. The developer company, Team Bondi, utilized thousands of
photographs taken by Robert Spence from a camera on the bottom of a plane over
five decades to create a Los Angeles for the player to explore.53 The developers
further claimed that basis of the plot in the game comes from a combination of
classic film noire and crime-related newspaper clippings on microfilm at the Los
Angeles Public Library.54 Occasionally, while navigating through the city, the player
will pass a simulated landmark. The player then has the opportunity to pause the
game at these moments, and read a small paragraph containing facts about what
they have seen. Moments like these tie together the fictional, the video game, and
the history.
L.A. Noire tries to invoke attitudes prevalent of the era in the game’s
dialogue and narrative. Cole Phelps and the LAPD try to weed through murders
committed in the same fashion of the infamous “Black Dahlia” murder. Contrary to
what is on the record publicly, fiction takes over as Cole Phelps and his partner
eventually discover the murderer. But in classic film noire cynicism, the department
decides to cover up the story since the suspect is related to an unnamed government
official. African-Americans are often the subject of harsher treatment by police in
the game, and everyone casually refers to them as Negroes. In tribute to the Red
Scare, anyone who expresses unusual ideology or politics is called a communist. In
one flashback scene of Cole Phelps’ war experience, members of his squad verbally
abuse captured Japanese soldiers for attacking Pearl Harbor. Phelps educates his
men, telling them the Japanese attacked because the United States ceased to supply
them oil. Though it is questionable how many soldiers understood this in the war,
53
Vickey Kalambakal, “Oldies and Oddities: He Shot California,” Air & Space Magazine,
November, 2010, http://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/Oldies-and-OdditiesHeShot-California.html?c=y&page=1.
54
“L.A. Noire: Team Bondi Interview”, uploaded by user LAnoireIGN, May 31, 2011,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pViESICXdGk.
28
�the game still inserts this bit of trivia.
Many historical video games appear to want to wrap more history into the
final product than what the character being simulated was likely to experience. In
order to provide a non-repetitive gaming experience, Cole Phelps’ police career is
quite abridged in L.A. Noire. By the end of the game, Phelps has risen through the
ranks of five different departments. Each department covers different cases such as
arson, vice, or homicide, and creates an ever changing gameplay experience. Trying
to write a lot of history into one game is likely to create anachronisms, though.
Indeed, on writing about the advertisements and the busy environment in the game,
Klein writes, “Storywise, L.A. Noire's 1947 feels more like 1953. Six years are
essentially conflated into one. Freeways are about to be built, and while some
freeways were under construction by 1950, the real push came after 1953.”55
The Brothers in Arms series, on the other hand, has always had the goal of
trying to place a strictly 101st Airborne experience in the larger context of World
War II operations. Specifically, the game claims to adapt what the player is doing at
all times to historical fact. In the first game in the series, Road to Hill Thirty, a
tutorial video on the game’s main menu allows the player to learn how to direct
multiple fire teams during the game, a skill that must be mastered to complete the
game. Gearbox often flaunts their “historical advisor”, retired Col. John Antal, who
narrates the tutorial. He claims the goal is to create an “authentic” experience of the
101st in the series, and this loaded term has been used in all the marketing for the
entire series.
In an interview for Hell’s Highway, Antal calls the game “… a powerful,
historical fiction, where you become the hero in your own movie”, yet follows by
saying the game is all about “real tactics…you have to find your enemy, you have to
fix him with fire, you have to flank him, and you have to finish him.”56 This is in line
with not only my theory on games and cinematics, but reinforces also Rejack’s belief
that historical shooter games can be looked at as reenactments. “…the experience
playing a video game has become increasingly similar to reenactment.” Historical
55
Klein, “Perspectives from a SoCal Historian.”
“Brothers in Arms Hell’s Highway Interview Col. John Antal”, uploaded by user biaworld,
August 9, 2008, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ABLHJJ04YR8.
56
29
�shooter games can be seen as reenactments too because of the ability to stop the
action. In real life, portrayals of clothing and tactics don’t inhibit the fact that
military reenactors can essentially stop the action; the gamer can pause or turn off
the game.57
Similar to Team Bondi and L.A. Noire, Gearbox utilized photographs to help
inspire stories and scenarios that could be recreated in the game. One developer
talks about how excited he was to render “that” field behind “that” farmhouse seen
in a photograph. Another discusses photos of wounded soldiers, saying “…there is a
story there behind that photo, and that’s what we are trying to get across.”58 Rejack
brings attention to Road to Hill 30’s “striking” use of composite images that the
player can “unlock” through completing the game. These images use editing
techniques to combine what the player will have seen during gameplay taking one
half of the photo, and what photo evidence they have making the other half, to show
that what the player saw is a digital recreation of historical fact: someone stood and
experienced what and where the player has, but in 1944.59 Hell’s Highway does
something similar. The player will stumble across certain “recon points” throughout
the game. When notified that they have found one, the player can pause the game,
get a photograph relating to what they are currently simulating, and an explanation
of the state of Operation Market Garden at that point in time.
Campbell theorizes that World War II games represent a kind of nostalgia,
particularly to the days of “ludic warfare.” He takes this phrase from Huizinga’s
study of the play element in culture, Homo Ludens, and how as long as war
remained a conflict between just combatants, that war is a game. Focused on the
recent “golden years” of World War II shooters, he claims the nostalgia is created by
“imposing specifically what modern war lacks: rules. Civilians are entirely lacking in
these games and friendly fire incidents are either impossible,
or…controllable…Weapons do not jam, grenades do not have unpredictable fuse
lengths, players do not become hopelessly lost...death is a product of having done
57
Brian Rejack, “Toward a Virtual Reenactment of History: Video Games and the Recreation
of the Past,” Rethinking History 11 (2007): 413.
58
“Brothers in Arms Hell’s Highway New Interview”, uploaded by user FuzzyMcDoodles,
June 26, 2008, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zZvP8ITEITc.
59
Rejack, “Towards a Virtual Reenactment,” 417-8.
30
�something incorrectly or inefficiently” and not “a product of bad luck.”60 In one
moment of Hell’s Highway, the player will clear a farm of German forces, to discover
a teenage girl who has been hanged in the barn. In a later cutscene, a priest is killed
by German artillery. But these events are “scripted” parts of the game’s environment
and immersion; they will happen every time the gamer plays. They are not dynamic
or controllable like the rest of the gameplay experience (neither the girl nor the
priest could have been saved). Gearbox obviously is trying to instill emotion into the
game, but Campbell does not see these scenarios as the exception to the “ludic”
experience for “the unpredictable, becomes predictable.”61
The sequel to Red Dead Revolver was 2010’s Red Dead Redemption. The
game is a spiritual successor, however. With the exception of the western setting, it
takes place later than Revolver, and with different characters in an open world
setting like in L.A. Noire. Unlike L.A. Noire, the world in Redemption is made of
fictional places that are inspired by the old west. The rear of the game’s case
headlines with “America, 1911. The wild west is dying.” Ironically, Redemption is
way wilder than the west has ever been. You shoot your way through ninety percent
of challenges through the game; intense music of a country and mariachi blend
queues, and the action becomes very cinematic. You play as John Marston, a man
who used to run in a notorious gang until they left him to die after a failed robbery,
and who chose to remake his life. The game begins after Marston is forcibly
separated from his family by the Bureau of Investigation, until he can track and kill
his former gang leaders. Marston’s ensuing adventure is a historical hodgepodge.
His adventures take him to dusty towns where every man has a pistol at his side, a
bayou of gamblers and drunks, and a Mexico in the midst of revolution.
Red Dead Redemption is more driven by western myth than history. It is
John Marston’s willingness to see his family again, in combination with his short
temper and skill with a gun, that give the story the excuse to have Marston
participate in assaulting bandit hideouts with sheriffs, double-crossing federales
and rebeldes, rounding up cattle for a farmer, and riding in the backseat of an early
Ford Model-T, all in the same game. The game has you participate in western film
60
61
Campbell, “Just Less than Total War,” 183-5.
Ibid.
31
�myth. You meet a less-than-honest snake-oil salesman, a drunk and unreliable
Irishman, a deranged grave robber, womanizing and trigger happy Mexicans (on
both sides of the war), the cynical sheriff, a racist and drug-addicted anthropologist
from Yale, and the unlikable men from the Bureau of Investigation who force
Marston into his quest. The cast comes together like something part of a bittersweet
dark comedy.
When Redemption tries to tell history, it usually shies away from specifics
and instead tries to implement some sense of broader themes. Marston is a symbol
of frontiersmen and is the source of derision for the officials that he is at mercy to,
and in the end of the game, betrayed by. To paraphrase one exchange, Marston tells
the officials he would take a horse over an unreliable car any day, to which he is
responded to as someone who can’t embrace the future. A prevailing theme in the
game is of the industrious and prosperous eastern United States encroaching on the
frontier defined by men like Marston. One historian spoke of how the development
is made to look sequential, which is a divergence from the truth, “In the game, it's
kind of posed as something that comes into an already existent society. There's a
town out there, and then the federal government comes in…state action in the west
happened hand-in-hand, rather than the big evil American government coming to
impose its vision on the towns.”62
Native Americans are notable mostly for their absence. Indeed, they are not
met until the end of the game. Most of them have joined Marston’s former gang,
since according to one Native informant, it was an opportunity to leave the
reservation and attack the white man’s system. All the Native Americans in this
game are largely defined and embittered by reservation life; their English is perfect,
and they wear some combination of white man and indigenous dress, and they are
moody. Casting Native Americans in such a role might be in response to the backlash
against the 2005 western shooter Gun, which was scathed by Apache activists who
saw the game as a return of the anarchic and insulting days of Native American
portrayal.63
62
Steve Watts, “How Historically Accurate Was Read Dead Redemption?” 1up.com, February
28, 2011, http://www.1up.com/features/red-dead-redemption-historically-accurate.
63
Wills, “Pixel Cowboys and Silicon Goldmines,” 300. Wills analyzes Gun as another example
32
�The only distinguishable and real micro-history in Red Dead Redemption
comes from Marston’s experience in the Mexican Revolution, and it is a missed
opportunity. The Mexican Revolution was indeed happening in 1911, but here the
goals is to overthrow a General Ignacio Sanchez and his regime, who is supposed to
be based on the real Porfirio Díaz. The unlikable, self-absorbed leader of the
revolution in game, Abraham Reyes, makes speeches to peasants promising returns
to democracy, while confiding to Marston that the peasant girls will believe anything
he tells them. In an all-too-familiar white savior tone, Marston proves instrumental
in helping remove the regime from power, only for the player to find out later that
Reyes became just as tyrannical. Since no real names or places are uttered, no real
information can be learned about the Mexican Revolution except that some people
were mad at the government, and the regime called those who were “socialists” or
“unpatriotic.” The Mexican Revolution essentially provides more opportunities for
the player to quick draw.
As I have tried to show, micro-history in video games might succeed in an
aesthetically accurate immersion (clothing, weaponry, architecture, and more
uncommonly music), but are still bound to understandings of history that are
gleaned from film. It is difficult to provide a simulation of an event that so few
people have experienced, so a simulation of how cinema simulates it has to suffice.
What we have in the end are portrayals of history in games that are, at best, teaching
the player about what Los Angeles looked like in the 40’s or how a squad of soldiers
would flank Germans, and at worst, are perpetuating that the American west was
hell well into the twentieth century. What should be of concern to historians is that
many games set in micro-history promote a history that is written mostly through
conflict. Few, if any, games exist yet where history can be played through diplomacy
and problem solving.
I conjecture that if the gaming industry is prepared to allow players to
simulate heinous crimes in Grand Theft Auto, it is prepared for untried narratives
for interactive history. Gaming journalist Xav De Manos laid out the foundations of a
game he would like to see where one plays as someone working for persons like
for the poor influence film has on game developers making history, based on how the
developers of Gun apologized though insisting that were “merely repeating what has been
done before” in the genre.
33
�Harriet Tubman during the abolitionist movement. The game would have “enemies”,
but only those you would avoid, not fight. I end my article with how De Manos ends
his:
There are countless amazing men, women and events from history
that our industry should honor; stories this industry should strive to
tell. Our history is made up of many wars, but our history is not war.
Our history is an unshakable pursuit of peace. Music, movies, book,
and film based on history have helped paint this picture of the world
we've lived through. They help celebrate what our planet has
accomplished and the good that men and women throughout history
have fought for. Like the real men and women from war, Harriet
Tubman is a true hero. But unlike many war heroes, our industry
doesn't even attempt to relay her story. I don't want to look at video
games for the rest of my life in terms of a history in technology. I
don't want to be pulled through a war zone every time I want to look
at our world's past. It's time video games put itself on equal footing
with other mediums. It's time to tell new, old stories.64
64
Xav De Manos, “It’s Time for a New History in Video Games,” joystiq.com, October 11,
2012, http://www.joystiq.com/2012/10/11/its-time-for-a-new-history-in-video-games.
34
�
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Vol. 40, num. 1, Clio - 2014
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BETWEEN CINEMATIC AND SIMULATION?
APPROACHING MICROHISTORY IN VIDEO GAMES
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Scudder, Leigh
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2014-05
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13 pgs
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Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
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THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES:
A TRANSFORMATION OF PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS DUE TO MEDIA ADVANCEMENT
AND INFLUENCE
Nicholle Jejer
In the minds of many Americans, one figure is the ideological symbol of democracy
and nationalism for the country: the president. The basic principles of upholding
democracy and nationalism still exist in the qualities that the President of the United
States should possess, though there are some elements or characteristics that have
changed in the public’s view over time. Among the most important social influences
that caused those changes in America’s view of their leader were inventions and
new technologies. These new technologies include various elements of media and
cinematic productions, which have caused large influences on how the nation
perceives and understands the role of the American presidency today.
The classic view of presidency in the past can be based upon the first
president of the United States, George Washington, who most certainly set a
precedent for those after him. A founding father associated with the Federalist
Party, Washington was first and foremost the Commander and Chief of the
Continental Army. He was appointed to this position in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
during the meeting of the Second Continental Congress in 1775. Before that time, he
was a delegate from Virginia.65 In this role he became known as a Revolutionary
War hero, a perfect candidate for the nation’s president. His role as president was
very militaristic and he said, “To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual
means of preserving peace.”66 The papers printed articles about his war stories and
his strong belief and pride in the newly founded nation. That was all the newly
liberated citizens really wanted and expected of him, for those two elements were
65
Frank Freidel and Hugh Sidey, "The Presidents of the United States of America," The White
House Historical Association, 2006. Web. Accessed April 29, 2013,
http://www.whitehouse.gov/about/presidents/georgewashington.
66
"Biography: 1. George Washington." American Experience: TV's Most-Watched History
Series. PBS, 2010. Web. Accessed April 29, 2013,
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general -article/jfk-politics/.
35
�what they had been striving and fighting for so long. Washington was the perfect
person for the presidency; he filled the image that the people desired and required
as a leader for the newly founded United States of America. This strong presidential
image continued even after his death in 1799, and can still be seen today in
Emmanuel Gottlieb Leutze’s 1851 painting, George Washington Crossing the
Delaware. This massive oil painting conveys the nostalgia with which people
viewed the role of the presidency during that time.
Just as Johannes Gutenberg’s adaptation of the printing press at the end of
the sixteenth century changed the media climate in Europe, developments in media
technology have altered the views of the presidency. In the early republic and
through the nineteenth century, the dissemination of media images of presidents
occurred chiefly in newspapers, though the newspaper was not the exclusive source
from which people gathered information and entertainment. In the twentieth
century, however, radio, television, and film radically altered American society in
general and the image of the presidency in particular.
The first twentieth-century invention to have a substantial impact on the
American public was the radio. Though it has much older roots, the radio became
commercially viable in the United States in the early 1900s. It progressed from
limited entertainment broadcasts around 1910, to commercial broadcasts in 1920,
to music and game shows in the 1940s and 1950s. The period from the 1920s
through the 1950s is considered to be the Golden Age of Radio.67 The first president
to be heard on the radio was Calvin Coolidge, whose State of the Union Address was
broadcast in 1923. He would be the first president to use the media in an effective
manner.68 For the first time the citizens got to hear their very own president, the
keeper of their freedoms and liberty, with their very own ears, which provided a
sense of a personal relationship. Perhaps the president most associated with use of
the radio during his presidency was Franklin Delano Roosevelt. It has been said
that Franklin D. Roosevelt became a friend and neighbor to millions of Americans,
67
"The Development of Radio." American Experience. PBS, 2009. Web. Accessed April 29,
2013, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/rescue/sfeature/radio.html .
68
"Biography: 30. Calvin Coolidge." American Experience: TV's Most-Watched History Series.
PBS, 2010. Web. Accessed April 29, 2013,
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/biography/presidents -coolidge/.
36
�delivering reassuring “chats” over nationwide radio often, to the public that
encouraged them to help one another transform the bad times into better ones.69
This method of interacting with the public helped Roosevelt get the support that he
needed to maintain the office of the presidency.
The next invention that substantially altered how America viewed the role of
the presidency was the introduction of television. Philo Farnsworth made the first
viable television in 1927, though it would not receive funding until much later. The
first commercially viable telecasts were not conducted until the early 1940s. The
first president to take advantage of this new technology was Harry S. Truman, who
had a presidential address televised in 1947. The most well-known and recognized
face of any president of the twentieth century that appeared on television is John
Fitzgerald Kennedy’s. As historian Burton W. Peretti writes, “Kennedy was the
really the first president to bring his family’s experiences into the media, and he
therefore created “the first fully cinematic presidential image.”70 John F. Kennedy
was one of America’s most beloved presidents throughout the years. He was young,
attractive, and had a charisma that made the American people feel as if they really
had a personal connection to him.
Kennedy’s success on television was a result of his ability to tightly control
his media image. Kennedy studied the image-building techniques that were used by
Hollywood stars. John F. Kennedy’s presidency was known as “Camelot” after the
King Arthur’s tale. His campaign and presidency gave off the illusion that the people
were living in a magical place, where people could pursue their hopes and dreams
just like they heard in stories or saw in the movies. A skillful media manipulator,
Kennedy used television to present a methodically constructed public image to the
American people. Citizens that became Kennedy's supporters and voters saw him as
vigorous, healthy, dedicated husband and family man, an ideal of the perfect man.
The fact that he was truly none of these things did not matter. Americans viewed
televised images of seeming glory of domestic harmony and of majestic splendor,
69
“Biography: 32. Franklin D. Roosevelt: Domestic Policies" American Experience: TV's
Most-Watched History Series. PBS, 2010. Web. Accessed April 29, 2013,
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/fdr-domestic/.
70
Burton W. Peretti, The Leading Man (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2012),
10.
37
�and they believed what they saw.71
The last area of media that altered how the American people viewed the
presidency was film. The first motion picture that had an audience was debuted in
1895, though it was not until the 1920s that film was common across the entire
Unites States. The role of film has changed over time from showing classic simple
picture images of scenery to modern day complex source of entertainment and
business. Gerald Mast and Bruce F. Kawin have argued that “movies [and film] were
very much a part of the process that has produced what today seems a global
culture.”72 Generally it seems that the American culture reflects upon the subjects of
films are produced; however sometimes artistic traits take over that cause different
types of films to be produced that can alter American culture as well. Hugo
Münsterburg has shown how there is an importance of the genre and actors of films
in order for the film to be successful. These elements engage the audience to make
a personal connection through attention, memory, emotions, and imagination. If
these elements are not present, then most likely the film will not be a success.73 An
interest in the idea such as the “American Dream” or many other ideals put into film
cause the “imaginary to be perceived as real.”74 Like the stories that were written in
the past, films too follow a storyline. There is always a setting, a plot, a conflict,
characters and an overall theme or lesson. The most important theme in most
stories and films is finding a hero. The hero serves as the character that defines the
space that he or she occupies, while highlighting the negative aspects such as
cultural oppositions of which he or she tries to defeat, therefore saving moral code
and providing a positive victory.75 In many films, a storyline depicts the role of the
Presidency, which is typically the role of a hero.
71
“Kennedy: Presidential Politics.” American Experience: TV's Most-Watched History Series.
PBS, 2010. Web. Accessed April 29, 2013,
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general -article/jfk-politics/.
72
Gerald Mast, Bruce F. Kawin, A Short History of the Movies (Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Education Inc, 2003), 23.
73
Hugo Munsterberg, The Film: A Psychological Study (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications Inc.,
1970), 31-56.
74
Tom Gunning, “An Aesthetic of Astonishment: Early Film and the (In)Credulous Spectator,”
in Viewing Positions: Ways of Seeing Film, ed. Linda Williams. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers
University Press, 1995), 115.
75
Thomas Schatz, Old Hollywood/New Hollywood: Ritual Art, and Industry (Ann Arbor, MI:
UMI Research Press, 1983), 68.
38
�Since the creation of all of these advancements in technology, presidents
have used the media to their advantage. The office of the presidency is the only
nationally elected position of government, making popularity important to winning
the minds and hearts of the American people so that one can become president. The
president does not want to be thought of as a politician; he wants to be thought of as
a national leader. Calvin Coolidge and Franklin D. Roosevelt with the radio, and
Harry S. Truman and John F. Kennedy with the television, used technology to
communicate with the American people, increasing their popularity and their
successes. Jack Valenti, who was first a staffer for Lyndon B. Johnson, ultimately
became the CEO of The Motion Picture Association of America. When remembering
his time in political arena that when it came to the office of the presidency, “most
people [will] vote for a president viscerally, not intellectually. Most people choose a
president romantically, a choice made in unfathomable ways, which is how romance
is formed.”76 This reflection of voters comes after the time of television, and the
presidency of John F. Kennedy, whom Valenti also knew. As mentioned before,
Kennedy’s campaigning style was designed to depict a strong, attractive man. This
image strongly influenced the voters and may have had an impact on the results of
the election of 1960. Many other presidents throughout time and to this day use
media manipulation to get responses from the American public. For example,
presidents can allow or deny access to any media or reporters they want. During
the Johnson presidency a CBS White House correspondent was allowed to film
White House staff at work showing what they did daily. This showed the public
what some of their elected officials were doing and where their tax dollars were
going.77 The way in which the press or media presents information or policies about
the presidency can dictate how he is viewed. This is can be good or bad for the
president. This is why the presidency and government hire a specific group of
White House correspondents that spend time transmitting stories that include
presidential statements and activities to media sources, to uphold the image of the
76
Jack Valenti, "The Unpredictable World of Politics: Lessons I Have Learned" (speech, at LBJ
Lecture, April 3,1997), Lecture transcribed by Benjamin Hicklin, graduate research ass istant,
2007-08, Web, Accessed April 29, 2013,
http://www.txstate.edu/commonexperience/pastsitearchives/20082009/lbjresources/lbjlectures/contentParagraph/010/document/1997 -04-03-valenti.pdf.
77
David L. Paletz, Robert M. Entman, “Presidents, Power, and the Press,” Presidential Studies
Quarterly 10:3 (Summer, 1980), 418,
39
�presidency. 78 This permits articles or videos that reflect the president in a
respected role, such as representing the nation at a foreign ceremony or conference,
instead of a negative role. This gives the illusion of power as well as the idea that
the president is doing his job to uphold the citizens’ rights and beliefs.79 This can
especially be seen when there are times of national security threats such as terrorist
attacks like that of the Oklahoma City Bombing or 9/11, as well as national strife
such as Hurricane Katrina, and even the Sandy Hook Elementary shooting which
brought President Barack Obama to tears on national television. Clearly how
presidents use the media affect how the American public views them in the role of
president.
The best way of seeing how the American public views the role of the
presidency today is by looking at some feature films. Considering that films reflect
American culture or ideals, films that show the presidency can be thought of as an
accurate portrayal of what Americans want in their president. Three films that
show roles of American presidents illustrate the ways in which the public looks at
the leader of their nation.
The film The Best Man, made in 1964, starring Henry Fonda, Cliff Robertson,
and Lee Tracy features a fight between rivals for a spot that will almost ensure a
nomination for president. Two main characters, academic William Russell played
by Fonda and down-to-earth Joe Cantwell played by Robertson, are leading
contenders for a party nomination and rivals. Cantwell, known for being ruthless, is
prepared to use anything, positive or negative, to achieve the nomination.
Meanwhile, Russell sees himself as a man of values, and does not want to stoop to
anything below his standards. Both men crucially need the support of the ailing
President, and as the stakes become higher each has to make decisions on how dirty
they are prepared to get. This movie brings out the best and the worst of American
politics by showing what goes on behind the scenes. However, it still shows that the
American public is keen on one type of person for the presidency. Russell, being the
“good” man, decides to ruin his own chances at the nomination so that ruthless
78
79
Ibid., 417.
Ibid., 421.
40
�Cantwell has no chance of winning the nomination.80 This film renews public faith
that there are good people who are willing to make sure that the best man gets the
job.
In 1995 The American President, starring Michael Douglas and Annette
Bening, was released. This is perhaps the most recent film that features the
President of the United States directly. This film is about the immensely popular
president Andrew Shepherd (Douglas) who is preparing to run for re-election.
Shepherd is a handsome man, of good stature, and middle-aged. He provides
wisdom and experience, with a strong reassuring tone. He was widowed when his
wife died of cancer, and has a daughter. The president and his staff are trying to
pass a bill that will help his chances of winning the re-election. Soon a lobbyist
Sydney Ellen Wade (Bening), for another bill shows up at the White House. The two
characters soon fall for each other, which causes President Shepard possible
problems for re-election. All of his qualities make him a very admired and popular
president among the people. Since people do not like change, this shows what
happens when he makes changes too quickly. This film portrays the Presidency as
a role to which the American people want, even need, to relate to. President
Shepard comes off as a “real” person, he has faced personal struggle and loss that
everyone has dealt with in their lives and it makes an entrance for a strong
connection. Though the film is a romantic comedy, it still sheds light about whom
the American public deems as acceptable for the role of presidency.81
A very different view from that of films comes from the television show
Commander in Chief, which aired in 2005. This is the first instance where a female
plays the role of the President of the United States. The storyline follows Vice
President MacKenzie Allen, played by Geena Davis, who becomes the first woman
American president after the sudden death of President Teddy Bridges. She is asked
to step aside twice because of prejudice and discrimination by men in the party.
Throughout the season Allen faces many challenges that are directly related to her
gender. For example, in one of the episodes Allen learns of a military crisis after
80
The Best Man, NTSC, Franklin Schaffner, (1964,United States, United Artists) film.
81
The American President, Rob Reiner, (1995, United States, Columbia Pictures, Warner
Bros. Pictures, and Universal Pictures) film.
41
�something tragic happens. She is confused and angered that the staff had kept her
out of the loop until something went wrong on a mission previously created by
President Bridges. This shows how authoritative male figures thought that she had
no need to know military operations, since usually it is thought to be a “man’s job.” 82
Though the show only ran for one season, it was ranked among the top shows of
ABC, and the actors were nominated and won awards for their positions on the
show, but the time slot kept changing resulting in fewer viewers and ultimately was
cancelled. This show helps us understand the media manipulation of public
perceptions regarding the potential future female President.
The last film shows not only what people want in their president, but also
how the citizens themselves are important to deciding who is voted into office.
Swing Vote, a comedy-drama released in 2008, shows the story of an entire U.S.
presidential election that ends up being determined by the vote of one man. In a
presidential election set in the near future, Bud Johnson (played by Kevin Costner)
who lacks knowledge and overall awareness in the subject of politics, is forced to
make a vote for which a candidate wins the election for president. This all comes
about when his daughter, who is in fifth grade, learns about the election and wants
her father to participate in the election. When he does not, she sneaks into the polls
and places a vote for him. However, the power goes out, forcing a recount of votes
in New Mexico (where they reside), which will be used to break the tie of electoral
votes, and this forces Johnson into the political spotlight, making him choose for
himself who he wants as president. Throughout the movie, both presidential
candidates try to persuade Johnson onto their sides. In the end both candidates end
up getting to know Johnson as a person and not as politicians, which makes Johnson
respect them both. A humorous twist is that the final scene of the movie depicts
Johnson going to cast his vote; the audience wonders which candidate he picked.83
In the end what mattered was that Johnson could relate to both candidates, which
was important to him as a voter. This film shows a great perception that
demonstrates exactly what the American people look for in a president, represented
82
Commander In Chief, ABC, September 27, 2005- June 14, 2006, written by Rod Lurie.
83
Swing Vote, Joshua Michael Stern (2008, United States, Touchstone Pictures), film.
42
�through the lens of an average American citizen, even including the viewpoint of a
young adult.
The media has contributed to the profound changes in the views that
Americans have of the presidency. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries, the presidency was typified by the rugged and stern image associated
with war hero George Washington. Today, the ideal presidential media image is that
of an attractive, charismatic and wise male. The influence of media as shown
throughout this paper has had a large effect on how the American people view the
office of the American president today. In a positive light this has caused more
people to be aware and involved in politics and political beliefs. One negative aspect
is the fact that people now understand how politics work, which usually has a
negative connotation. The one element that has remained constant, though it may
seem rudimentary, is the belief in national pride and the desire to uphold that
nation. The American people remember their presidents in that very way, no matter
what mistakes may have been made. Whether its documentaries or feature films of
past presidents such as FDR, JFK, or Nixon all make the president out to be a hero,
despite the conflicts or actions they faced during their careers, simply because they
were still the leaders of the country, and patriotism is an important selling point for
these films.
The role of the American president has undoubtedly changed since the
founding of this country. The uses of technology, such as media and cinematic
productions, have become key tools in how politics and history intertwine. Whether
the media is used directly by the presidency and its staff towards the public, or
creating a fantastic image of the presidency, it has shaped the public’s view. Though
it remains a prestigious position, people today have a greater understanding of what
the role entails—even if that reevaluation involves a healthy degree of skepticism.
This is in large part due to media advancements. Compared to the days of stories
passed along about the illustrious George Washington that could only be imagined
by the citizens, today there is ability to see, hear, and interact with the President of
the United States causing greater public support of the most powerful office in the
world.
43
�
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THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES: A TRANSFORMATION OF PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS DUE TO MEDIA ADVANCEMENT AND INFLUENCE
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Jejer, Nicholle
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Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
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WEATHER MODIFICATION AS A WEAPON OF WAR
Bernard Kokinchak
(Editor’s Note: The following are excerpts from Bernard Kokinchak’s recent MA thesis
completed at WCSU on the same topic).
Introduction
The environment has a profound impact on human beings. There are several
different consequences when a major environmental event makes an impact on
human history. These rare and major events alter everyday life and can cause
humans to change their behavior. Some of these environmental events include
droughts, floods, tropical cyclones, and snowstorms. The impacts of these types of
events are dependent on different factors including how humans prepare for them.
Just after the Second World War, a new technique was developed that would
promise to enhance such preparation. This technique would become known as
weather modification, and it changed how weather would be conceived. Weather
modification could have constructive applications, and showed much promise. It
could be applied for preventing crop failures and stopping floods and other negative
weather effects. Yet despite these positive effects, these new techniques also caused
debate over whether changing the weather was a form of playing God and altering
unnaturally the human population. Therefore, although experiments in weather
modification in the United States between 1946 and 1974 showed that it could be a
useful element of military strategy, development assistance, and private corporate
profit, weather modification was ultimately abandoned because the legal and ethical
issues raised by modification practices outweighed the potential benefits.
Weather modification, like any other attempt by human to change their
environment, is an attempt to bring a level of control and stability to the world and
protect it from extreme change. These extreme changes could be simple as drought
or flooding for a region that normally does not experience such weather conditions.
45
�Weather modification seeks to alleviate extreme weather events to limit human
suffering. Two useful examples of the need to alleviate natural but unusual weather
events can be seen through examining the “dust bowl” event in the American
Midwest in the 1930s and rare New England hurricanes.
The events of the Dust Bowl of the late 1920s and 1930s would be an
example of how the weather produced profound geographical and geological
changes, with considerable human implications. In that case, the attenuation of
native vegetation in the form of grasses in the face of unusual weather destroyed the
ability of native soil to remain in place. Despite the significance of the weather on
these events, however, historians tend to focus only on the aftermath of these
weather events, not on the weather itself.84
In the case of the Dust Bowl, like many other cases, the implications of
weather events are only realized at a much later date. Given that the Dust Bowl
devastated multiple states, congressional action was clearly required. Yet Congress
only acted after the dust cloud had reached the capital in Washington DC.85 Clouds
of dust needed to traverse over 2000 miles for political action to be taken.
Tropical Storm Irene in 2011 and Hurricane Sandy in 2012 provide more
evidence of how weather events tend to be ignored until their profound impact is
felt by a critical mass of the population. Although major tropical storms are rare in
New England, minor tropical weather events occur with some frequency, even if
there is sometimes a long period of time between events. If the storm had hit the
United States lower latitudes, it would not have been as bad because of the soil
make-up in the Mid-Atlantic States or southern east coast of North America. Since
the New England states have glacier till soil, a smaller hurricane causes a great deal
of flooding and destruction in New England. These aforementioned examples show
how the weather events can have a major impact on human life.86
84
Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in The 1930 (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2004), 7-8.
85
Ibid., 184-185.
86
Nicholas, K Coch. October 13, 2012. “Hurricane Irene - A Catastrophic Hydrological
Disaster for the Northeastern U.S.” Lecture, Science Building, Western Connecticut State
University, Danbury, CT.
46
�When the truly devastating impact of weather events is actually felt, humans
have a natural tendency to want both to prepare for the next event, and if possible,
to prevent it. Therefore human nature dictated that if given the means to control the
weather and the environment, most would jump at the opportunity. Controlling the
weather would be appealing because it would eliminate the uncertainty involved in
the obvious inability to precisely predict weather events. Having such control over
the environment would be very tempting.
The ability to control weather events is not merely a matter of science
fiction. Human ability to control the weather and to predict outcomes of weather
events were among the advances in the field of meteorology during and
immediately after World War II. One of the advancements in the field of
meteorology that made weather modification more feasible was radar technology.
Radar’s well-known military application was to detect aircrafts in flight; however, in
a meteorology application it could also be used to detect water condensation in
different forms and density. These advancements in the field of meteorology will be
a main discussion point in this thesis, with particular attention paid to weather
modification and its effect on regional weather patterns.
For the purposes of this thesis, weather modification will be defined as an
intentional act to modify the weather. The paper will not discuss unintentional acts
of weather modification. An example of an unintentional act to modify the weather
would be what in common parlance is called “global warming”; that is, the humancaused increase in atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide, which has contributed to a
shift in global temperatures. Our focus will be, in particular, on such techniques of
willful weather modification such as cloud seeding, in which the weather
modification has significant effects, and can even be used as a weapon of war. We
will spend less time considering other methods of weather modification such fog
dispersion, the effort to use techniques to control visibility for airplanes through
clearing low clouds and fog. The limited space and time for this thesis will require us
to focus on those aspects of weather modification with the greatest potential impact
on human lives.
Another important consideration of this thesis is that understanding
weather modification requires at least an elementary background in meteorology.
47
�Therefore, a brief digression into meteorology, the modern-day study of weather,
becomes necessary. Meteorology is a multidisciplinary field of science containing
aspects of physics, chemistry, mathematics, and computer science; without
combining these fields of study, the weather would be more difficult to study and
understand. The vocabulary is also unique to the field, but every effort will be used
to explain key terms when necessary, or technical terms will be replaced with other
common-use terms that are more accessible to the public.
The first step necessary to understanding weather modification is the
physics that occurs on the molecular level in clouds. Water is a dipole molecule,
which means water functions like a magnet. However, the magnetic-like properties
of water are not necessarily enough to cause water vapor atoms to be attracted to
each other and coalesce into droplets to fall from the sky as rain. The production of
rain also requires collision, which occurs in part at random and by chance.87
Other processes can cause water molecules to coalescence, but this depends
on where the cloud is located in the atmosphere. There are two basic types of
clouds. The first cloud, a warm cloud, is located in the atmosphere where the
temperature is above zero degrees Celsius. The second type of cloud is located in an
area of the atmosphere where the temperature is below zero degrees Celsius. The
physics of how raindrops grow is key for understanding how weather modification
programs work. There are several different theories and models about water
droplet and ice crystal growth in clouds. The programs to be discussed in this thesis
will involve both warm clouds and cold clouds. Any processes caused by humans
that affect this process of cloud growth will be considered intentional and defined as
weather modification for the purposes of this thesis.
Consider the location of the bulk of the United States land mass. In this land
mass there could be a wide range of possible weather conditions and events, from
tropical events to arctic events. An example of these variable weather conditions can
be seen by the fact that the state of Arizona experiences a monsoon season, a
tropical event involving warm clouds. Yet this very same state also experiences
snowstorms from very cold clouds.
87
John Walles and Peter Hobbs, Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey, 2nd ed.
(Burlington, MA: Academic Press, 2006), 209.
48
�In other words, the United States encompasses a vast area that has wideranging weather events. The United States government, through various federal
agencies, collects data about these weather events. The government has been doing
this continually since 1890 with the help of citizens under the Organic Act, which
created the Cooperative Observer Program. This program does not require citizens
to participate in program, but rather supplies data freely to field meteorologists who
can use these data as they see fit.88 The government had accumulated over fifty
years of data on weather by 1946, when the first experiment in weather
modification occurred in the United States.
The government and military have always had an interest in weather,
because of the impact weather has on society and humans. Therefore, weather
control through weather modification became a very tempting tool to develop. If the
government could control the weather, it would be more powerful than any military
force because weather control meant the ability to create famine through crop
failures, devastation through drought and floods, and the ability to destroy
infrastructure, among other effects.
Ultimately the unpredictable negative impacts of altering weather patterns
would be the undoing of research into weather modification in the United States.
The people could not accept the changes that would cause by weather modification,
especially in the volatile political climate of the late 1960s and early 1970s.
This study will employ a nearly chronological approach to the development
and research of weather modification systems in the United States from the first
experiments into modification in 1946 to the signing of the Weather Modification
Convention in 1976. The only exception to this chronological approach is when
evidence from newspapers is cause change and push Congress to act on the issues of
weather modification. The reason for this decision to handle the evidence in this
manner is effect more important at that time when comes public then when the
event occurs. Also rather than studying every instance of the application of weather
modification, this thesis will examine key turning points in both military and civilian
weather modification operations. It will utilize sources from government
88
National Weather Service, “NWS Cooperative Observer Program,” accessed May 19,2013,
http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/coop/what-is-coop.html
49
�publications about weather modification, as well as key pieces of investigative
journalism from the 1960s and 1970s, as the press exposed to public previously
secret military programs using weather modification technology. The significance of
the order of events in these cases necessitates a chronological approach.
Weather is a global event. No matter how small a weather event may seem, it
will in some way affect every place on planet Earth. Therefore, while this thesis
focuses on United States weather modification operations, to give a more complete
account of history of weather modification during this time period, a global
approach becomes necessary. Part the reasoning for global approach is the Cold War
that will exist between the United States and the Soviet Union. The foreign policy
pursued by the United States is aid to other countries to prevent them from
becoming communist countries. This thesis will thus examine weather modification
at different places as building blocks to be used in piecing together how each piece
of information forms a picture and a coherent story of weather modification.
The Postwar Period and the Determination of the Viability of Weather Modification
This section will examine the postwar years from 1946 to 1950, which can
be classified as the early years of weather modification. During this time, scientists
experimented with methods of cloud seeding. Both in the private and public sectors,
such experiments with weather modification began shortly after the conclusion of
World War Two. The weather modification experiments at the time required both
military and civilian operations, and each had different aspects. The motives for
these weather modifications in each operation were different, for the intended
outcomes were dependent on the group of people who was carrying out the
operation to modify the weather. Understanding the motives of these respective
groups by an examination of their goals for those operations is crucial.
One of the first groups of people in the United States to begin
experimentation with weather modification was those working for public worksrelated entities in the Western United States. They became involved because the
water supply had been a known issue in this area. In the nineteenth century, the
50
�increase of the population in the western parts of the U.S. taxed the natural water
supplies to support such a population of people. An example of this concern about
water shortage were the reservoirs built to supply water for arid regions of
California and Western areas of the U.S. as the population grew in those regions.89
The O'Shaughnessy Dam was built to supply the city of San Francisco, California
with a stable water supply after that city’s devastating earthquake in 1906. There
were other projects that took place under the New Deal programs, such as the
Hoover Dam for the city of Las Vegas, Nevada.
However, at the beginning of the postwar era, a new method for water
management was under development in the western states. On November 13, 1946,
the first large scale experiment was carried out by Vincent Schaefer. Schaefer
worked for the General Electric Corporation under Irving Langmuir, who won a
Nobel Prize in 1932 for his work in surface chemistry. Schaefer himself became
known for copying a snowflake in 1940 using a thin plastic coating called Formvar.90
Then, in the early 1940s, he began work with precipitation static, ice nuclei, and
cloud physics.91 By 1946, he was able to use dry ice as an agent to modify clouds by
causing ice crystals to form in super cool clouds,92 which in turn caused a cloud to
precipitate.93 Modification of clouds could be carried out to force clouds to
precipitate prematurely, by the use of dry ice. Schaefer’s experiment was sponsored
by the General Electric Corporation.94
After this successful experiment, and the other similar experiments which
replicated these results, private corporations began to consider the legal
ramifications of this technology. In one particularly notable test, researchers with
89
Kendrick A. Clements, “Engineers and Conservationists in the Progressive Era” California
History, 58:4 (Winter, 1979/1980): 285.
90
M.E. Grenander Department of Special Collection and Archives, “VINCENT J. SCHAEFER
PAPERS, (UA-902.010), 1891-1993,”
http://library.albany.edu/speccoll/findaids/eresources/findingaids/ua902-01.html
accessed Dec. 6, 2013.
91
Ibid.
92
Supercooled clouds are clouds formed by water droplets which are below the freezing
point of water, but the water remains in a liquid form instead of a solid form of ic e crystals.
Further definition and explanation can be found in: Wallace and Hobbs
93
“Wartune” Magazine, Weather Under Control Forecast: High Legal Winds Followed By
Better Climate, February 1948, Record Group 331, Box 7416, Folder 1, National Archive
Records Administration, Archive II, College Park, Maryland. (hereafter cited as NARAII,
RG331, Box 7416, Folder 1.) 1.
94
Ibid., 1.
51
�General Electric managed, on December 19, 1946, to cause precipitation of eight
inches of experiment-made snow to fall over large parts of Vermont and New York,
when the forecast only called for a “fair and warmer” day.95 This result gave pause
to General Electric about continuing these experiments, because of the very real the
legal implications: General Electric lawyers imagined the possibility that the
company would be sued for damages for modifying the weather to the detriment of
some.96
Therefore, before General Electric could conduct any further experiment in
weather modification, a solution was needed to continue their experiments while
simultaneously reducing the liability they would incur from such experiments. The
solution was found by General Electric through a contract with the Army Signal
Corps that they obtained in March 1947.97 The Army agreed to this joint venture in
part because of their close connections to General Electric researchers at the time.
The civilian meteorologists in the Signal Corps engineering laboratories were
themselves former General Electric employees.98
Originally, however, General Electric had attempted to negotiate such a
contract with the US Navy. The Navy later became a part of the contract as a
cosponsor.99 Both the Navy and Army had an interest in weather modification
research. This combination of Army and Navy engineers, working together with
private companies initially led by General Electric, became known as Project
Cirrus.100 Project Cirrus also involved the US Weather Bureau and eventually
expanded its scope of operations from New Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean basin off
the coast of Florida. In part, this geographic range reflected one of Project Cirrus’s
main goals: attempting to modify hurricanes.101 The first priority was to modify the
course or track of a hurricane as it made landfall. Yet this would merely result in
hurricanes devastating a different area. Therefore, even the government was forced
95
Ibid., 7.
Ibid.
97
Ibid.
98
Ibid.
99
Ibid., 7-8.
100
F.O. Carroll to Headquarter USAF, July 12, 1949, Sarah Clark: Correspondenc e File, Record
Group 342, Box 3717 National Archive Records Administration, Archive II, College Park,
Maryland (hereafter cited as NARAII), RG342, Box 3717.
101
Congressional Research Service, Weather Modification Programs, Problems, Policy, and
Potential, (1978; repr., Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific, 2004), 39.
96
52
�to stop such hurricane experimentation because the unintended consequences and
potential liability were simply too great.102
By 1950, the Air Force was being used as a source of supply for the cloud
seeding operation. The Air Force supplied, for a test flight: “two (2) B-17 aircraft,
one (1) L-5 aircraft and appropriate aircraft crews; four (4) pilots, one (1)
Navigator and four (4) enlisted flight personnel.”103 The Air Force, by the
commitment of the aforementioned supplies, became inextricably involved in
Project Cirrus as well. However, the Air Force’s involvement in the project is
somewhat limited because of the small size of the force they commit to the project
in 1950. The Air Force chose to not fully dedicate the supply above to the project,
but rather to station them near central operations and make them available on short
notice.104 The cautious position taken by the Air Force in limiting their participation
is somewhat perplexing, considering that the Air Force was a pioneer in weather
modification. It had begun the process of cloud seeding in April 1948. The area
targeted for cloud seeding by the Air Force at that time was a region of Japan that
was then experiencing a drought.105 The issues that arose from the lack of water
were so acute that water had to be flown in from Tokyo. The water in this region
was rationed, so that for several weeks, people could only access water for two
hours per day.106 The outcome of the Air Force attempts to cloud seed in this case
are unclear. What was reported back was only a recommendation that cloud seeding
be further researched.107 However, an internal memo shows that Air Force planes
could be used for the cloud seeding operation, and that therefore means had to be
found for cloud seeding, such as artillery.108 This process would use artillery shells
to spread the chemical agents to generate the cloud.
One possible reason that this Japan experience caused the Air Force to be
reticent about cloud seeding was a concern that this seeding might cause
unintended weather effects on the Korean Peninsula. These lessons were brought to
102
Ibid., 39 - 40.
F.O. Carroll to Headquarter USAF, July 12, 1949, NARAII, RG342, Box 3717.
104
Ibid.
105
M. H, Halef to Marquat April 3, 1948, NARAII, RG331, Box 7416, Folder 1.
106
Levy and Marquat to Department of Army, April, 1948, NARAII, RG331, Box 7416, Folder
1. I
107
Ibid., I.
108
Ibid., I.
103
53
�bear during Army experiments in Japanese cloud seeding in 1950 that followed the
Air Force operations in Japan. The Army was aware of the legal liability it may incur
during such operation, example of this legal liability consideration effect of such
operation on neighboring countries such as Korea. This was particularly important
to the United States Military at the time, since 1950 was the year that commenced
the Korean War. The army reached the conclusion of cloud seeding operation in
Japan in 1948 would have no policy impact on Korea.109 This was important, as the
United States did not want to add atmospheric uncertainty to the already volatile
situation on the Korean peninsula. In any case, for whatever reason, by 1950 the Air
Force seems to have been backing away from taking the lead on seeding operations
to modify the weather. This position may be related to other events at the time.
Another agent of the government that was involved in modification was the
Weather Bureau.110 This civilian agency of the federal government took a different
approach to weather modification. Weather Bureau scientists believed that silver
iodine would be a better agent for a large-scale operation.111 The Weather Bureau
was also more focused on the modification of the energy of storms.112 Their position
resulted from the way storms are thought about in community of atmospheric
scientists, as agents for the transfer of energy. This concept is similar to that of heat
mechanics, in which heat is understood as a mechanism to transfer areas of energy
from high amounts to an area of low amounts of energy.
On the West Coast, the California Electric Corporation was also conducting
weather modification experiments in the late 1940s. These experiments were cloud
seeding experiments to determine if clouds could be generated in a localized area to
produce rainfall over a targeted reservoir in order to fill the reservoir during a
period where natural low amounts of rain occurred. The army also kept records on
the California Electric Corporation.113 In a paper by Stuart A. Cundiff dated April 17,
109
Memo for the Record, April 9, 1948, NARAII, RG331, Box 7416, Folder 1.
The Weather Bureau would be transformed in the 1960s as the National Weather Service
under the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration.
111
Charles C. Bates and John F. Fuller, America’s Weather Warriors (College Station, TX:
Texas A&M University Press, 1986), 143.
112
Horace R, Byers. “History of Weather Modification” in Weather and Climate Modification,
ed. W. N. Hess (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974), 25-26.
113
Ernest to Kennedy Record Group 331, Box 7416, Folder 2, National Archive Records
Administration, Archive II, College Park, Maryland. (hereafter cited as NARAII, RG331, Box
7416, Folder 2.)
110
54
�1950 explained the results of the experiments carried out by the California Electric
Corporation in 1947 and 1946. In particular one of the results was a 14% increase
in precipitation. This paper was placed into a military file about cloud seeding
operations.114 These experiments were covered in newspapers in the area and the
US Army Signal Corps did compile a file on the experiments conducted there.115 With
these experiments and others, the military knew by early 1948 that cloud seeding
could be successful and had major implications.116
Thus, in conclusion, by the postwar era, parts of the United States military
were teaming with the private sector to use newly invented cloud seeding
techniques to increase the water supply in drought-ridden regions. This was true
not just in arid areas in the United States, but around the world as well. After World
War II, the Army, along with the Air Force, had operations in Japan to increase the
water supply by inducing rainfall. The introduction of ideas of how to induce rain
occurred near the same time of Project Cirrus was being conducted. By late 1940s
the military was intensely interested in weather modification by the method of
cloud seeding, and this interest seems to be tied to the potential profitability of the
technique for private sector corporations such as General Electric, which brought
the idea of weather modification to the military as a means to reduce their legal
liability. The Army conducted experiments in weather modification with other
armed services beginning in October 1948 under Project Cirrus.117
The implications and outcomes of Project Cirrus can be evaluated in a few
different ways. One feature of note from these files is that the Army and Air Force
engineers seemed different points of view on weather modification, with the Air
Force being much more concerned about the potential unintended consequences of
using these techniques. As established above, the army had a pressing motivation
for this research: the lack of drinkable water in Japan right after the war.118 The
Army was basically administering Japan after the war. If the population did not have
114
Stuart A. Cundiff, April 17,1950. “An Industrial Operation to Produce Precipitation”
NARAII, RG331, Box 7416, Folder 2.
115
Ernest to Kennedy NARAII, RG331, Box 7416, Folder 2
116
Stuart A. Cundiff, April 17,1950. “An Industrial Operation to Produce Precipitation”
NARAII, RG331, Box 7416, Folder 2.
117
Ewin R. Petzing to Chief of Staff May 12, 1949 NARAII, RG342, Box 3717.
118
Levy and Marquat to Department of Army, April, 1948, NARAII, RG331, Box 7416, Folder
1.
55
�water to drink, it might have led resistance among the civilian population of Japan to
the postwar occupation. The evidence of this concern is seen in correspondence
written back and forth between officers stationed in Japan and the mainland about
different ways to try to induce rain over Japan.119 The Army went as far as to
consider the implications of this action for the volatile Korean conflict if they were
able to successfully cause rain to occur.
However, the Air Force was taking a much more limited role in cloud
seeding operations. The Air Force was unwilling to dedicate equipment and men to
a solo project of their own, and was only willing provided resources to the Army on
a limited, on-call basis.120 Despite Air Force caution, the interest in expanding both
the civilian and military uses of weather modification in the 1950s led to its
widespread use both in development assistance and as a weapon of war for more
than two decades.
Weather Modification and the Second Indochina War
Weather modification activity in Vietnam undertaken by the US was purely
under the auspices of a military operation. The operation’s code name was
Operation Popeye. It was primarily aimed at increasing the amount of rainfall over
Vietnam from monsoons and other tropical weather systems, such as tropical
storms. The United States’ military forces would gain tactical advantages from such
operations. One of these advantages would be control over where rainfall came
from, at what time it came, and how much rainfall ensued. I will not argue the merits
of such weather modification activities. Rather, I will contend that during the
timeframe of escalating United States intervention in Southeast Asia (1965-1973),
the United States military came to the conclusion that while weather modification
can be effective in certain circumstances, its impact was hard to quantify.
The United States began operations of weather modification in Indochina in
March 1966. These operations thus coincided with the Johnson administration’s
escalation of direct American involvement in Vietnam, which had begun in earnest
in 1965. Operation Popeye was conceived in secrecy due to the politically sensitive
119
120
Putt to Commanding General, May 19, 1949, NARAII, RG342, Box 3717
Ibid.
56
�status of weather modification at the time. The operation was therefore to be
carried out under the guise of reconnaissance. 121
The controversy that caused the military to carry out weather modification
clandestinely stemmed from findings about the human cost of these programs. The
impact of weather modification extended well beyond the scope of its military uses.
By this time, weather modification was also known to affect the mood of people
subjected to it, increasing the incidence of suicide, depression, and other psychiatric
conditions. Also, weather plays a role in increasing crop diseases. By the mid-1960s,
it was also known to have a negative (and unpredictable) effect on civilians’ food
and water supplies.122
Another reason for controversy was the unpredictable economic impact of
weather modification. Although a change in weather could have a positive economic
impact, the impact could also be negative, as explained in the unintentional snowfall
in upstate New York mentioned earlier in this essay. The economic impacts could
also be positive in one area but negative in another. Whether the economic, cultural,
or climatic impacts of weather modification were seen as positive or negative
depended on the point of view of the observer. This statement should be taken in its
most literal sense, because depending on where an observer was located, increased
cloud cover or precipitation could be good or bad. Drought over the Ho Chi Minh
trail, for example, might fit the military objectives of the United States, but an
ensuing drought in South Vietnam might not. This is the reason this operation need
to carried out in secrecy, because the political fallout from robbing other people
(such as in Cambodia and Laos) of rain to increase rain over Vietnam for military
reasons would be immense.
The further reason for this operation was that there had been a successful
test carried out over Laos. That test succeeded in extending the rainy season and
was deemed a success by the U.S. Air Force, which supervised the operation.
Therefore, based on these positive results, Operation Popeye went ahead as
planned.
121
Seventh Air Force, “7AF Oplan 463-67 (R) Popeye, November 7, 1966 page 1, National
Archive Records Administration, Records Group 472, Box 29, Folder 206-02, Archive II,
College Park, Maryland (hereafter cited as NARAII).
122
W. R. Derrick Sewell. “Weather modification: When Should We Do It and How Far Should
We Go” in Weather Modification Science and Public Policy., ed. Robert G. Fleagle (Seattle:
University of Washington Press, 1970), 94-95.
57
�The operation had three major objectives. The first major objective was to
target areas for increased rainfall. There was different level of priority targets first
primary target was to deny in many operations of logistical support. The second
priority was to degrade the traffic ability or the movement of information along the
lines of communications for the enemy. The last priority for increase rainfall was to
annoy and harass the enemy troops. The second major objective was to dissipate or
suppress clouds or rain fall in areas example of the targets were clouds that
prevented because suspicions, air support, attacks where visual notification was
necessary, mobile air defense missiles and other transient targets.123
However, back in the United States, another story was unfolding. In 1966,
the National Science Foundation (NSF) pointed out that no one knew how many
people used weather forecasts to influence the social and economic decision-making
process. The NSF urged scientists to study the extent to which people relied on
forecasts. This question was significant; if no one relied on weather forecasting, then
weather modification might be seen as more innocuous, since, first, it was less likely
that enemies in war would rely on such data to make business decisions, and
second, it was less likely that they would actually be aware that such modifications
were taking place at all. In 1967, the National Center for Atmospheric Research also
took on the task of examining the impact of human manipulation of the atmosphere.
One of the findings of the report was that a solution on air pollution must be found
before it became a cause of conflict.124
However, the NSF report indicates that Johnson administration officials did
not see reducing the potential damage caused by weather modification as a priority,
since they had come to the conclusion by 1967 that weather forecasting was
immaterial to a majority of Americans. This report then sidesteps the issue of
whether using weather modification techniques as a tool to improve agriculture or
for other purposes might have harmful unintended consequences. As mentioned in
the earlier example in this thesis about the unintended increase of snowfall in New
York State in 1948, private property landowners were already in fear of disaster if
weather modification experiments continued. This example can be extended to
123
Seventh Air Force, “7AF Oplan 463-67 (R) Popeye”, November 7, 1966 page A-I-1,
NARAII, RG472, Box 29, Folder 206-02.
124
National Science Foundation, Weather Modification Ninth Annual Report, 1967,70-71.
58
�apply to this later point, as people might be interested in keeping unmodified
weather systems for these reasons, and they would thus want to avoid intentional
acts of modifying the weather.
While the unpredictable effects of weather modification continued to be a
hindrance to using it for civilian purposes, that same unpredictability provided
important advantages for the Air Force application of these techniques in Southeast
Asia. If the Air Force could create a situation in which the enemy were forced to take
some predictable action in response to unpredictable weather, this would operate
as an aid to their military strategy. The importance of control over terrain and
atmosphere on the battlefield was highlighted by US experiences in Operations Steel
Tiger and Tiger Hound in 1965, the year prior to the inception of Operation Popeye.
In 1965 and 1966, through Operations Steel Tiger and Tiger Hound, the Air
Force conducted bombing operations in parts of southern Laos, and a combination
of various naturally-occurring but unpredictable weather events, such as monsoonal
rainfall which produced mudslides and made areas of the Ho Chi Minh Trail very
difficult to navigate, created a problem for the North Vietnamese Army (NVA).125
The Air Force documents that reported this observation saw the value the weather
could play in conjunction with conventional military tactics such as bombings.
In Operation Popeye (1967-1972), what the Air Force created was a system
of weather modification to enhance 0ther mission operations in Vietnam. For
example, defoliation missions that relied on dropping napalm on forests would be
more effective in conjunction with reducing the chance of rain from cloud cover. A
reduction in rainfall would allow fire to spread and burn more of the land.126 Such a
reduction in rainfall would also force local populations, who were presumed to be
sympathetic to NVA and NLF elements, into an agonizing choice about how to use
their water supplies. Local villages could either choose to fight the fires or to keep
sufficient water for other uses such as drinking.
In considering the effectiveness of Operation Popeye, one important factor
was that the operation was secret, and therefore was not subject to popular
pressure or bad press. This would change, however on July 2, 1972, when a New
125
Seventh Air Force, “7AF Oplan 463-67 (R) Popeye”, November 7, 1966 page A-I-1,
NARAII, RG472, Box 29, Folder 206-02.
126
Ibid, A-I-1.
59
�York Times report by Seymour Hersh claimed that the first attempt at weather
modification occurred in South Vietnam as early as 1963.127 That the Air Force had
considered this tactic as early as this time period fits in the timeline of implementing
it by 1967, when Operation Popeye formally began.
As we have previously mentioned, in the early 1960s most weather
modification was carried out under the auspices of the State Department, which had
implemented weather modification programs in the Middle East for the purpose of
providing water via artificial rainfall. Hersh’s article now showed how key members
of the State Department opposed weather modification being turned into a weapon
of war. 128
Hersh was reporting this in July of 1972, around the same time as the
Pentagon Papers were being made public by Daniel Ellsberg and the New York
Times. In fact, the case reached the Supreme Court and the decision, which was
announced on June 30, 1971 with a great deal of press coverage, ensured that the
material in the Pentagon Papers would remain available on First Amendment
grounds. In a sense, Operation Popeye was part of the case, as it appears in the
Fourth Volume of the Gravel Edition of the Pentagon Papers, which was released in
1971.129 Although Operation Popeye was classified, the materials in the Pentagon
Papers were also classified; this was the major issue at stake in the case. The fact
that the Pentagon Papers were made public clearly helped Hersh in his reporting.
Hersh explains that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) first used weather
modification when the Diem Regime was facing protests from the Buddhists in the
summer of 1963; apparently the regime, with cooperation from the CIA, seeded
clouds and created storms to disperse protesting monks. This tactic seemed to work,
causing over seven inches of rain to fall on protests on two separate occasions.130
Hersh’s understanding of the operations reflects the same tactical goals
mentioned by the military itself, with some difference in emphasis. Hersh cites the
deterrence of troop movements of the North Vietnamese Army and the suppression
of anti-aircraft fire as the major operation objectives of weather modification.
However, Hersh leaves out another objective, that of assisting the defoliation
127
Seymour Hersh, “Rainmaking is Used as Weapon by US,” New York Times July 3, 1972
Ibid.
129
The Pentagon Papers IV, Senator Gravel ed. (Boston: Beacon Press 1971), 421.
130
Hersh, “Rainmaking is Used as Weapon by US,” New York Times July 3, 1972
128
60
�mission of the Air Force, out of his report entirely, which is curious, because it was
just as important to the operation. This part of the operation, of course, had
considerable moral implications.
Part of the sensitivity of these operations and perhaps why they were
classified had to do with the nature of their approval process. The operation
required Presidential authorization before the plan went into effect.131 This meant
that if these operations were to cause drought or flooding, or lead to environmental
genocide, the blame for these human rights violations would lie squarely at the feet
of the President (at the time of Hersh’s writing, Richard Nixon).
Operation Popeye grew as time progressed. Hersh reports how, by 1967, the
weather modification operations were being conducted over Laos during the war. At
this time, an operation was in force to add chemicals to warm stratus clouds. This
chemical had the benefit of causing acid rain. The effect of acid rain is well known in
current times, but back during this time period, as was mentioned before, it was not
seen as a significant problem. This acid rain had high pH content. It was thus highly
acidic, and was meant to react with the metal in artillery and military equipment to
cause it to fail.132 By extension, if the pH was high enough to cause a chemical
reaction with metal, then the rain would also be acidic enough to change the pH of
the soil and water. This change would have had an extremely detrimental effect on
plants, animals and humans. It must have led to the loss of crops, livestock and fish.
The uncertainties with this sort of very volatile approach to weather modification
are considerable, and it might have led, with prolonged use, to the collapse of the
entire Indochinese ecosystem. Perhaps most resistance to weather modification
might stem from opposition to these kinds of tactics.
Hersh supported a call for change as well based on the persistence of
weather modification efforts. Weather Modification Operations were supposed to be
stopped in 1967 by order of Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara. However, they
continued anyway, and were in effect as late as 1972. Along with the environmental
dangers and ecological consequences that can occur from weather modification,
Hersh was also concerned with secrecy within the State Department concerning
131
132
Ibid.
Ibid.
61
�it.133 An incident prior to operation Popeye becoming active with State Department
prior the Vietnam War was using weather modification as a means of giving aid to
countries that need increase in water supply. The most recent one relevant to the
region was India. President Johnson had also used his State Department to conduct
weather modification over India in 1965, because the rainfall had been short that
year as the monsoons did not provide the rain that it would normally provide the
region.134
Hersh’s report makes it clear that the more weather modification became
increasingly prevalent mechanism of war, the more that weather modification
became unpredictable and problematic. Senator Claiborne Pell, reacting to the
revelations about its use in Southeast Asia, commented that “this [weather
modification] is Pandora’s box.” As a resident of Newport, Rhode Island, Senator Pell
lived in an area which could be easily affected by weather modification; because the
low lying nature of the land that Newport is located on. He held hearings about such
activities in the Senate’s subcommittee on Oceans and International Environment.135
Conclusion
Weather Modification as weapon of war, and the policies associated with it,
came to a halt due to the profound legal, political and social pressure brought to
bear on the military and Congress to stop it. The pressure to stop the potentially
dangerous and unpredictable effects of weather modification grew as time
progressed from the beginnings of the U.S. weather modification experience in 1947
to the signing of 1977 signing of the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or
Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental modification Techniques (ENMOD). The
social effects of environmental modification ultimately are inextricable from their
political and legal effects. Close observers could have noted this inextricability from
considering the results of the General Electric experiments of the late 1940s, during
which engineers caused over a foot of snow to fall over a wide area simply by
mistake.
133
Seymour Hersh, “McNamara Orders to End the Rainmaking in 67 Reported,” New York
Times, July 3, 1972.
134
Doel, Ronald, E., and Kristine C. Harper. “Prometheus Unleashed: Science as a Diplomatic
Weapon in the Lyndon B. Johnson Administration.” Osiris 21:1 (2006), 76.
135
Hersh, “Rainmaking is Used as Weapon by US,” New York Times July 3, 1972.
62
�This event was important because it marked the beginning of government
involvement in weather modification activities. The federal government realized
that weather modification experiments by private corporations needed to be
curtailed because of the legal impacts of the environment modification that might
occur. Thus, weather modification activities were largely conducted under the
auspices of the U.S. State Department during the 1950s, during which time the
Department of State was using weather modification in several different countries
to provide rain in order to prevent or curtail drought that was naturally occurring in
these countries.
What is important about drought is that it is a natural process, which
produces some benefits to other than just the negatives of creating crop shortages
and famine. Droughts allow for landscapes to be renewed, much as natural wildfires
are sometimes allowed to occur in order to thin out forests. In order to allow the
ecosystem to restart a new and allow for other species of plants and animals to
thrive again in order to rebuild a mature forest, sometimes fire is needed. Similarly,
some of these cloud seeding operations were also occurring in the Middle East, an
area that is notorious for having water shortages. In some respects, modifying the
weather in order to create more artificial rain is not only an unnatural thing for the
environment but modifying the environment in order to support more human life
over the natural environment that would naturally occur there and only support a
certain number of humans. But modifying the environment of which humans live in
is nevertheless an understandable thing for humans to do, and of course other
means of reducing the impact of the weather and the environment from dykes to
dams to canals have existed for millennia.
Weather modification is an extension of the technologies that humans can
use to modify their own environment, technologies that go beyond mere farming,
building shelter, and a variety of other activities. The reason why humans engage in
these supplementary activities is to modify the both the social and environmental
structure around them for their own benefit. The mere ability to modify their
environment allows for other activities of humans to occur in regions which
otherwise might not support human habitation.
With the necessity to alter the environment comes the need to restrict these
alterations so that they do not negatively affect others. Hence, with new technology,
63
�new legal structures began to develop to decide which activities are acceptable
versus which are not acceptable. In particular, with better technology developing for
the weaponization of the environment in the postwar era, it became increasingly
clear that these tools were especially dangerous and unpredictable, and therefore
required special regulations. These weapons are especially dangerous because they
threatened to destroy the natural environmental balance that is necessary for
humans to survive on the planet. When the United States chose to cloud seed over
Vietnam during the Second Indochina War, it began to pass over the boundary
between modifying the environment for the benefit of all and creating a destructive
non-livable situation for humans in the affected area.
What Operation Popeye represented was the worst kind of environmental
modification. The United States cloud seeding over Indochina made the situation for
Vietnamese, Laotian, and Cambodian people miserable and caused an
environmental disaster—a disaster that only augmented the damage done by other
damaging chemicals such as napalm and dioxin, and damage made only worse by
seeing clouds with large amounts of lead. Thus, the United States not only cloud
seeded but also combined it with its defoliation operation which led to the
destruction of the land which would take years if not decades to renew itself.
Weather modification was used as a regular weapon of war during wartime
by United States after World War II. The U.S. use of environmental weapons would
eventually cause an international response to the growing ability of humans to
modify their environment and the world around them in ways that could be
destructive if not applied properly. The secrecy surrounding the United States’ use
of these weapons also caused the response it received from the international
community and domestic community to be compounded and more negative about
environmental modification as becoming a weapon of war than it otherwise might
have been.
Senator Pell of Rhode Island was correct in calling weaponizing of weather a
“Pandora’s box”; once open, it caused immense environmental damage.
Furthermore, the unpredictable effects of long-term environmental warfare,
combined with ever-better technology, raised the specter that the weaponization of
weather may have eventually wreaked havoc on the human race. Hence, Senate
resolution 71, which demanded the executive branch to seek a treaty to ban such
64
�activities of weather modification, was a useful corrective in stopping
environmental modification from becoming a significant weapon of war. Once the
Soviet Union took an active interest in this idea, it provided the catalyst to negotiate
a treaty at the United Nations. While the United States did become a signatory to the
treaty, the inaction of the United States’ executive branch during the Nixon
Administration was ultimately a public relations coup for the USSR, and the
executive branch was made to look like it failed to act in the best interest of United
States foreign policy. The recalcitrance of the executive branch was also against the
interests of the Senate, which had directed the executive branch to seek the treaty.
Therefore the treaty, which banned environmental modification for hostile
or military purposes, was an important but only initial step in managing the
environment in a correct and responsible way on the international level. The
example of weather cooperation on meteorological data should be a model for how
environmental modification should be constrained in the future.
65
�
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WEATHER MODIFICATION AS A WEAPON OF WAR
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Kokinchak, Bernard
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2014-05
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21 pgs
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Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
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THE TRIANGLE SHIRTWAIST FACTORY FIRE OF 1911:
RESULTING LABOR SAFETY LAWS AND EXEMPLARY ACTION TO PREVENT THE
PREVENTABLE
Marissa O’Loughlin
As one of the most infamous incidents in the history of American industry, the
Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire of 1911 remains a momentous event for labor
safety advocates. This fire that led to the fearful demise of 146 people is far from an
isolated occurrence; it is just one example of the many preventable mass deaths at
the hands of capitalism that were common in that era. More than that, however, it is
also representative of the countless fatal conditions currently present at open or
clandestine sweatshops all over the globe even today. The resulting legislation from
the fire, a lasting legacy of an American industrial disaster, has contributed to
positive changes in labor safety, but this leaves one begging the question: have the
overall working conditions of garment laborers really changed, or are there people
out there who, at this very moment, are at risk to suffer the same deadly fate as the
Triangle Shirtwaist Factory victims? While imperative American legislation
regarding fire safety labor law has been created over the past century in response to
the fire, today dangerous sweatshop conditions remain in violation of the laws
developed to protect garment workers or are located outside jurisdiction of such
legislation.
At the start of the twentieth century New York’s fashion economy was
booming; garment workers were over-worked and underpaid in an industry that
had not yet protected the interests of laborers by law. Thousands of people, often
women and children, worked in overcrowded factories, some of which had exits that
were locked to prevent employees from stealing. Men, women, and children worked
twelve hours a day, often six days a week, for little pay. After years of operating on
this schedule, clothing laborers grew more than tired of their circumstances but felt
helpless as a working class since they needed the money to support themselves and
their families. The laborers feared complaining would leave them unemployed in a
city full of immigrants willing to work longer hours for less money.
�At that time, middle and upper-class women began to notice the working
women of New York. They united with working women to form the International
Ladies Garment Workers Union in 1900 to help fight for improved conditions of the
over-worked and underpaid of the garment industry. In 1909, the International
Ladies Garment Workers Union held a citywide strike with thousands of workers for
higher pay and more reasonable hours.136 Max Blanck and Isaac Harris, as owners
of several factories, were known to have been openly against the strike. They were
not only unwilling to hire women who had participated in the strike but were also
owners of one of the companies that had resisted the strike the longest. They
supposedly hired strikebreakers, men to beat the women that were openly
protesting.137 Nevertheless, the ILGWU was successful in their protesting, and
striking garment workers went back to work with a compromise of raised pay and
more reasonable work hours.
In 1911, the streets of Manhattan bustled with hundreds of immigrants
ready to report to work in the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory, which was located on the
top three floors of the Asch building by Washington Square. Droves of Jewish and
Italian men and women shuffled into the ten-story building to work long hours six
days a week in order to support themselves and their loved ones. As they were
willing to be paid less and work longer hours, the business owners, Max Blanck and
Isaac Harris, primarily hired immigrant women who did not participate in the
garment strikes to assemble the fashions in their factory. One former employee
notes that Harris had a way of “sneaking into the dressing room and look[ing]
through our pockets to see if he could find union receipts.”138 The owners of
Triangle Company seem to have had issues with strikers who were fighting for their
rights to higher pay and fairer work.
On March 25, 1911, shortly before 8:00 AM, approximately 500 garment
workers filed into the Asch building to report for work on a Saturday. Mary
136
John Holmes, "Sweated Work, Weak Bodies: Anti-Sweatshop Campaigns and Languages of
Labor." Labour / Le Travail 56, 328-332. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed
December 12, 2013).
137
Charles Phillips, March 25, 1911 Triangle Fire." American History 41, no. 1: 16-70.
Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed December 12, 2013).
138
Joseph Granick, interview by Leon Stein, Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire, (June 6, 1958).
67
�Domsky-Abrams, a former Triangle employee, described a conversation she had
witnessed just before starting time between a fellow employee and their manager:
One girl asked him, ‘Mr. Bonstein, why is there no water in the
buckets? In case of a fire, there would be nothing with which to fight
it,’ He became enraged at our group of price committee members,
and with inhuman anger replied: ‘If you'll burn, there'll be something
to put out the fire.’139
The women dispersed, shrugging off his comment as typically snide and reported to
their sewing machines for the starting bell.
At 4:40 PM, just before the closing bell rang, a small fire ignited in a rag bin
filled with scrap fabric, the start of which, some have speculated, may have been
linked to cigarette remnants.140 Scraps lined the floor between the narrow aisles of
sewing machines at the factory. The wood floors and piles of fabric ignited rapidly.
Women and men ran for their lives to the small elevators and narrow stairwells.
One exit door was locked. The rusting fire escape collapsed under the weight of
people frantic to escape, killing those who fell from it. The elevator made four trips
before collapsing under the weight of the workers who jumped to their death in the
elevator shaft. Women and men burned alive; others died of smoke inhalation, and
many horrifically jumped to their death out of the windows and down the elevator
shaft. Blanck and Harris had escaped via the roof onto a neighboring building, and
others escaped from a ladder extended from the neighboring New York University
Law School building, until that too collapsed. The ladders of responding firefighters
could only reach the lower floors, and their hoses could not reach the burning top
three floors.141 Fruitless in their attempts to fight the fire out of reach of their
ladders and hoses, firefighters held out nets to catch the garment workers who leapt
off the burning building. Three people had jumped at once, breaking the net leaving
only concrete to catch the remaining victims who fell from factory.142 The violent
fire claimed a total of 146 of the approximately 500 workers who arrived to work
that morning in about 18 minutes time.
139
Mary Domsky-Abrams, interview by Leon Stein, My Reminiscences of the Triangle Fire,
(1950).
140
Phillips, 16-70.
141
Ibid.
142
Ibid.
68
�One survivor, Joseph Granick, a cutter who worked on the eighth floor, was
seventeen years old on that traumatizing day. When asked about the fire, he said, “I
have been through wars but I never saw anything as terrible as what I saw at the
morgue.”143 Further testimony of the day’s horror came from survivor Celia Walker
Friedman, an examiner that worked on the eighth floor. She recalled that:
the aisles were narrow and blocked by the chairs and baskets. They
began to fall in the fire. I know now that there was a fire escape in
back of me but I ran to the elevator because that was the only place
to run to. The door to the stairway was completely blocked by the
big crates of blouses and goods. The fire crept closer to us and we
were crowded at the elevator door banging and hollering for the
elevator. I ran to the freight elevator on the Greene St. side first
but… the cable broke.144
Friedman’s clear mentions of what many people today would consider to be, “fire
hazards,” were likely not generally associated with this term in 1911. It is noted
that Friedman did not know that the fire escape collapsed, killing many who were
on it, until this interview was conducted over 30 years later.145 The fear in her
memory of the fire is echoed by the memories of survivor Ethel Monick Feigan, who
was a lace cutter on the ninth floor of the Asch Building. Feigan told of a frightening
scene and also expressed confusion about knowledge of exits, saying:
One day I was working and got lost in the shop near the Washington
Place side. That was when I saw that there was a door there. In the
fire, when I saw the freight elevator was down, then I thought of the
Washington Place door. I ran to that door and tried to open it. All
around me people were hollering, “I am dying, I am dying.” I ran
from the door into the dressing room looking for something to use
on the door. In the dressing room there were men and women
laughing. I did not know at the time that they were hysterical.146
Granick, Friedman, and Feigan are just three of the survivors, but themes
arise from their specific recollections that can be seen in other interviews conducted
143
Joseph Granick, interview by Leon Stein, Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire, (June 6, 1958).
Celia Walker Friedman, interview by Leon Stein, Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire, (August
8, 1957).
145
Ibid.
146
Ethel Monick Feigan, interview by Leon Stein, Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire,
(September 29, 1958).
144
69
�by Leon Stein.147 One common thread is the fear surrounding this eighteen minutes
of their lives and the last-minute decisions made amidst that fear that can be
attributed to their survival. Another similarity is the confusion or lack of knowledge
regarding ways to exit, and the identification of various fire hazards throughout the
factory. Since these survivors were recalling memories in an interview over thirty
years after the tragic fire, it is likely that immediately after the fire, other survivors
expressed a similar lack of knowledge. Had they had fire drills and the knowledge to
correct fire hazards, perhaps those who died could have been saved.
New York mourned the loss of the promising young lives by taking political
action in the days following the fire. Not even twenty-four hours after the flames
started, the New York Times front-page headline read, “141 Men and Girls Die in
Waist Factory Fire; Trapped High Up in Washington Place Building; Street Strewn
with Bodies; Piles of Dead Inside.”148 One subtitle declared, “Only One Fire Escape:
Coroner declares building laws were not enforced: building modern, classed
fireproof.” Another read, “Mob Storms the Morgue.” A separate article in the
following day’s New York Times was titled, “Lack of Fire Drill Held Responsible:
Company advised to train its workers, says industrial engineer, but ignored him.
Danger in other factories, only a few, he asserts, have emergency drills and escape in
many is cut off.”149 Just hours after the Triangle Company fire was put out, it seemed
as though another fire was lit in the hearts of the public, and journalists promoted
the voices of protesters lining the streets of Manhattan fighting for justice from the
factory owners and for the implementation of labor safety laws.
Blank and Harris were tried for charges of manslaughter but acquitted. A
separate civil settlement after their acquittal resulted in the agreement that they
pay $75.00 for every life lost. The public was outraged at the original acquittal, and
continued to protest for justice. Though pointing the finger at the two owners was
easy for the public to do, how were they going to keep such a monstrosity from
147
Leon Stein, Remembering the 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire: Survivor Interviews ,
2011,
http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/trianglefire/primary/survivorInterviews/leonSteinInterviews.h
tml (accessed December 1, 2013).
148
New York Times, "141 Men and Girls Die in Waist Factory Fire; Trapped High Up in
Washington Place Building; Street Strewn with Bodies; Piles of Dead Inside," March 26, 1911.
149
New York Times, "Lack of Fire Drill Held Responsible," March 26, 1911.
70
�happening again? What would hold factory owners who were locking doors and
keeping unsafe conditions in their factories out of greed responsible? How could
the public ensure that factories and workers are safe? By August 1911, just months
after the fire, the Sullivan-Hoey Law was passed, which later became the same law
that allowed for the establishment of the New York Bureau of Fire Prevention.150
This law allowed the New York Fire Department and the New York Police
Department authority over fire prevention activities. Immediately following the
establishment of the Sullivan-Hoey Law, the Factory Investigating Commission (FIC)
was established by the New York State legislature, lead by the elected chairman
Senator Robert F. Wagner, to address these now widespread, fire prevention
concerns.151
Preliminary investigations were conducted by the FIC in the months
following the commission’s establishment. The FIC investigated sanitary conditions
of first and second class factories, fire hazards, women’s trades, bakery conditions
and bakers health examines, lead and arsenic poisoning, conducted industrial
survey of parts of New York, and started investigations of child labor in tenement
housing.152 Following these investigations, the FIC compiled a report in which the
commission described their findings, the results of which led to a collection of
legislative recommendations for change. Among the FIC’s recommendations were
that factories should be registered with the state, children seeking employment
certificates should undergo a physical examination, fire drills must be practiced,
there should be automatic sprinklers in factories, and fire prevention practices to be
enforced included removing unnecessary items or trash, fireproof waste
receptacles, and the outlawing of smoking in factories.153 Also recommended was
the illegality of eating in rooms where toxic substances are dealt with in
manufacturing and that there be adequate hot and cold washing facility in
150
Katie Marsico, The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire: Its Legacy of Labor Rights (Marshall
Cavendish, 2009).
151
Factory Investigating Commission: Reports, "Remembering the 1911 Triangle Factory
Fire," Cornell University , August 1911,
http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/trianglefire/primary/reports/fourthreportoffic.html.
152
Ibid.
153
Ibid.
71
�manufacturing establishments.154 Furthermore, the commission recommended that
employment of a woman within four weeks after childbirth be made illegal. Lastly,
it was recommended that the Commissioner of Labor have authority over
unsanitary factories.155
The first FIC report was presented to the state of New York legislature on
March 1, 1912, and all of the aforementioned recommendations passed and became
law. Almost one year after the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire, the mass of
preventable deaths from unsafe factory conditions could be avoided because of the
efforts of concerned citizens. The fire drill and automatic sprinkler requirements of
New York building codes today are reflections of a lasting legacy of one of the
deadliest fires in New York City’s history. One could never measure with precision
the amount of deaths or injuries prevented directly or indirectly by fire prevention
laws and the knowledge that comes from such legislation. However, it is clear that
the 146 victims of the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire did not die in vain, and their
legacy lives on in New York State fire safety and labor law legislation and through
the New York Bureau of Fire Prevention.
Several initial observations regarding the possible reason why so many
perished in the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire reveal that if the doors to the
factory were not locked, as New York State Labor Law Article 6, Section 80 had
required of factories in 1911, perhaps more employees could have escaped.156 If the
doors were locked, as many survivors vehemently testify, it would have been
because the owners were concerned that their merchandise could possibly be
stolen.157 The greed of keeping fabric from potentially being taken may have
contributed to the demise of 146 people. Also, if fire hazards, like heaping piles of
blouses blocking exits and the emergency water pales being empty, were corrected
sooner, perhaps many victims would not have suffered that terrible fate. If there
154
Ibid.
Ibid.
156
"People v Harris, New York State Labor Law of 1911, Article 6 Section 80." In New York
Supplement: National Reporter System New York State Superior. West Publishing Company,
1912.
157
Leon Stein, Remembering the 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire: Survivor Interviews ,
2011,
http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/trianglefire/primary/survivorInterviews/leonSteinInterviews.h
tml (accessed December, 1, 2013 ).
155
72
�were no spaces for the fabric other than the floor and in front of stairwells, it seems
that more space for storage was needed at the Triangle factory. Moreover, if the fire
escape was replaced before it had rusted to the point that it collapsed when people
needed to use it, more people may have survived.158 However, more space for the
fabric piles and a newly replaced fire escape would have cost money, the same way
that keeping the door open and risking the potential of stolen merchandise would
have cost Blanck and Harris money. It can be concluded that greed ultimately lead
to the death of multiple victims.
Though inspiring in many ways, the triumphs of the outraged New York
public consisting of garment workers, victims’ loved ones, concerned citizens, and
others, raises several questions regarding the state of affairs in the same industry
over a century later. If the greed of businesspeople led to a terrible fire in New York
prior to the proper safety laws being put into place, than how many men and
women willing to work for less, for longer hours, in unsafe conditions to make a
living for their family are currently doing so in places that have not yet taken the
same political action? More importantly, how can the same legislative action
towards fire prevention, labor rights, and labor safety be implemented in locations
that do not yet have such laws before a tragedy takes the lives of workers?
Unfortunately, a similar situation comparable to the Triangle factory fire
took the lives of seven garment workers. On November 24, 2013, a factory fire
claimed the lives of seven Chinese immigrants in a garment factory makeshift
dormitory in Prato, Italy. At the Teresa Moda garment outlet, the immigrants
created a makeshift kitchen with small electric stoves, which are currently
attributed to the cause of the fire.159 The windows are covered with bars, and there
are no emergency exits. Among the people living in the factory was a little boy who
reporters estimate was only a few years old. The Teresa Moda brand is associated
with creating merchandise for major global retailers at a low cost. In a New York
Times article describing the tragedy in Italy, Franciscan friar Francesco Brasa, who
158
“What Went Wrong?”, The 1911 Triangle Factory Fire,
http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/trianglefire/supplemental/3dmodel.html (accessed April 20,
2014).
159
Florence Daily News, "Fire at Chinese-owned clothing factory killed 7 workers,"
December 3, 2013.
73
�helps the large Chinese immigrant population in Prato, Italy, was quoted regarding
the factories: “They’re slaves without knowing it.”160 Similar to the immigrant
workers of the Triangle Company, the Teresa Moda factory employs hundreds of
Chinese immigrants in Prato who are willing to work in less than desirable
conditions for what little pay they can get.
As evidenced by the legislative action following the Triangle Company Fire,
working conditions and fire safety laws can change; such changes do not have to be
in response to major tragedies that take the lives of employees in order to be made a
priority by politicians. The same simple construction of the American labor and fire
prevention laws implemented in 1912 can be applied to almost any geographic
location today. However, as long as there is a place that is willing to house or turn a
blind eye to such sweatshops, and a market to buy the garments, cheap merchandise
assembled in life-threatening conditions will continue to jump place to place, either
settling in a country without said legislation or opening and closing before health
and fire inspectors can arrive. According to Italian officials discussing such
factories, “…many businesses here open and close before health or fire inspectors,
and even the tax police, can check them. Often they reopen with new tax code
numbers.”161 If that is the case, perhaps inspectors should be expected to arrive
prior to tax codes being issued.
Manufacturers of sweatshop-assembled garments are simply making what
sells. Ultimately, consumers are buying these products assembled under these
slave-like conditions of long hours, little pay, and dangerous work conditions.
Consequently, a market is created for the product. In order to satiate the demand,
the supply is provided by such sweatshops. Like the consumers of Triangle
Shirtwaists, present-day consumers of these cheap goods do not concern
themselves with the origin of the merchandise and the conditions under which the
products were made. If consumers demanded to know the origin of their product,
and perhaps have a certificate or seal of approval for the brand or the particular
item, then owners of the companies, like Blanck and Harris and Teresa Moda, would
160
Elisabeth Povoledo, "Deadly Factory Fire Bares Racial Tensions in Italy," New York Times,
December 6, 2013.
161
Ibid.
74
�follow the demand and adjust the supply to safe, fair factory conditions. A more
personal connection with one’s clothing or proof of some sort that it was made at a
safe and fair place will bring consumers to care where all their garments are
created. If consumers cared more about the origins of their clothing, and refused to
buy goods are not proven to have been made under safe and fair conditions, then
factory owners would respond to this demand and improve their factories.
Unfortunately, in early twentieth century America, the greed of consumerdriven garment industry grew more rapidly than labor rights, labor safety
regulation, and fire prevention legislation. The result of such circumstances lead to
the death of 146 garment workers on March 25, 1911 at the Triangle Shirtwaist
Factory in Manhattan. Fire safety and labor rights legislation quickly followed in
response to the public concern and outrage over the fact that this mass death was
preventable. Today, eerily similar conditions continue to be the norm for thousands
of garment factory workers all over the world. A mass death of these people simply
trying to work for a living does not have to happen in order for these conditions to
change. Consumers need to demand to know the origin of their product, and
garment factory owners need to concern themselves with the quality and safety of
their factories. The casualties resulting from the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire
were not in vain; legislation including fire prevention and labor safety laws serve as
protection to American labor, and the casualties serve as 146 examples to
consumers and factory owners that no garment is worth risking someone’s life.
75
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Vol. 40, num. 1, Clio - 2014
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
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Title
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THE TRIANGLE SHIRTWAIST FACTORY FIRE OF 1911:
RESULTING LABOR SAFETY LAWS AND EXEMPLARY ACTION TO PREVENT THE PREVENTABLE
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
O'Loughlin, Marissa
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2014-05
Description
An account of the resource
10 pgs
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Vol._40_num._1_Clio_-_2014/231/clio7.pdf
fc7196ef9b9ba0828a9899fcfb043afb
PDF Text
Text
RACE AND GENDER THROUGH THE AMERICAN LENS
Meagan English
Books Reviewed:
Duffy, Jennifer Nugent Duffy, Who's Your Paddy? Racial Expectations and the
Struggle for Irish American Identity. New York: New York University Press, 2013.
Leslie J. Lindenauer, I Could Not Call Her Mother: The Stepmother in American
Popular Culture, 1750–1960. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013.
Western Connecticut State University professors share a love of learning and a
wealth of knowledge with their students in the classroom. Both Professor Leslie
Lindenauer and Professor Jennifer Duffy bring a palpable enthusiasm for their
respective subject matter to the classroom in a manner that elicits thoughtprovoking discourse among those taking the courses they teach. Their ardor for
scholarship extends beyond the classroom; Dr. Lindenauer and Dr. Duffy recently
published books exhibiting their passion for research in their respective areas of
interest and expertise. Dr. Lindenauer's book, I Could Not Call Her Mother: The
Stepmother in American Popular Culture, 1750–1960, explores the notion of the
archetypical stepmother as depicted in popular culture, and how the concept of the
“evil stepmother” helps determine the constructs of motherhood. Dr. Duffy's book,
Who's Your Paddy?: Racial Expectations and the Struggle for Irish American
Identity, delves into the topic of Irish American identity as it relates to race,
including the experiences of Irish Americans as they struggle with strained
generational relationships and an American social and political system that lacks
color blindness.
What image comes to mind when the word “stepmother” is mentioned?
Most would paint a menacing portrait of a woman whose self-centered, caustic
personality could not possibly be compatible with childrearing. Even for those with
no first-hand experience with stepmothers, the mere mention evokes a powerful
reaction. Given the exceedingly high divorce and remarriage rate in America,
stepmothers play a prominent role in the dynamics of the American family. Despite
76
�their ubiquitous presence, the support stepmothers, who are often the “substitute
mother” after a biological mother passed away, provided to their blended families
has often been obscured by negative stereotypes perpetuated in popular culture
throughout history. In I Could Not Call Her Mother: The Stepmother in American
Popular Culture, 1750–1960, Dr. Lindenauer explores the archetypical stepmother
through the lens of popular culture, exposing hard truths about how Americans
perceive stepmothers, as well as how the notion of stepmotherhood affects the
social constructs surrounding biological motherhood.
Dr. Lindenauer has devoted years of research to the study of witches in
colonial America; during her exploration of witches, the mention of stepmothers
began to take a more prominent role. When asked about the genesis for her
research on stepmothers, Dr. Lindenauer replied, “It was almost accidental…[in
researching] how witches were perceived, incidents of witches decreased over time,
while mention of evil stepmothers increased.”162 This increased presence of the “evil
stepmother” in the sources utilized for her research on witches sparked an interest
in stepmothers. Why the increase, and why evil?
Dr. Lindenauer sought to answer these questions in a similar manner to her
approach to her previous scholarship on witches. Dr. Lindenauer explained that her
“commitment to cultural history, pop-culture memory, and identity studies”
encouraged her to examine why stepmothers were increasingly vilified, and
conclude how that determines one's perception of motherhood.163 Using popular
culture to mirror American's concept of stepmothers, Lindenauer reveals an image
of stepmothers whose characteristics – callous, parsimonious, and contemptible –
strike a remarkable contrast against the nurturing, selfless biological mother of the
early antebellum period.
Was there ever a period in American history where the stepmother did not
face vilification or condemnation? In her book, Dr. Lindenauer states, “This is the
story of the stepmother. It is a story that intersects with some of the predominant
scholarship in women's history–with examinations of enlightened motherhood in
162
163
Dr. Leslie Lindenauer, personal interview with the author, April 2014.
Ibid.
77
�the eighteenth century, middle class domesticity in the nineteenth century, and
natalism, maternal feminism, and eugenics in the Progressive Era.”164 While the
stepmother played villain to the caring biological mother for much of the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries, Dr. Lindenauer asserts that the late nineteenth century
through the Progressive Era offered “periods of time when stepmothers were
accepted, but not celebrated.” The Progressive Era, during which motherhood
became a much studied subject, sentiment moved towards “educated motherhood”;
parenting transformed into a skill which to be learned as experts garnered a greater
understanding of child development.
Despite gaining greater acceptance, stepparents remained largely a white,
middle class phenomenon. The only corollary found in African-American families
would be that of the “mammy,” a contentious figure regarded as equally nurturing
and derogatory. Despite the presence of the mammy as “substitute mother” for
children in white families, the notions of either nurturing mother or evil stepmother
failed to be extended to the African American community. Dr. Lindenauer explains,
“…the tradition of formal and informal adoption and fostering, and the role of
extended family units in the black community created a culture wherein the idea of
the “stepmother” may have been less important.”165
The many examples of the vitriol aimed at stepmothers in popular culture
over the course of two centuries shed light on how Americans, especially white
middle-class Americans, view motherhood. Dr. Lindenauer's message is clear:
white, middle-class Americans “value biological motherhood.” Even in the present
day, popular culture lauds the biological mother, who provides comfort and
nourishment from breastfeeding her infant, as the ideal. In a society where
stepmothers are suspect and biological mothers face judgment for a litany of
parenting decisions made either out of preference or necessity, from formula
feeding to daycare, recognition of the unjustified stereotypes surrounding nonbiological mothers and understanding of their effect on women's roles serves to
advance parenting and lends to greater solidarity amongst women.
164
Leslie J. Lindenauer, I Could Not Call Her Mother: The Stepmother in American Popular
Culture, 1750-1960 (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2014), xix.
165
Ibid., xxiii.
78
�Solidarity eludes many who struggle with racial and ethnic identity in a
society that maintains racial expectations. Dr. Jennifer Duffy sheds light on the
struggle for Irish American identity in Who's Your Paddy: Racial Expectations and
the Struggle for Irish American Identity, illuminating the realities of the Irish
immigrant experience amidst the neoliberal politics of not quite colorblind America,
while examining generational conflict amongst Irish Americans through candid
interviews with Irish American informants in Yonkers, New York.
Dr. Duffy's commitment to an interdisciplinary approach to ethnography is
evident as she tackles the difficult and often emotionally charged issues of race and
immigration: “Race is more than skin color,” Duffy asserts. Duffy utilizes the models
of the “Good Paddy” and the “Bad Paddy” to underscore the racial expectations
involved in the Americanization of Irish immigrants during the complex process of
assimilation, while her fieldwork encompasses interviews with assimilated Irish,
“white flighters” who left New York City for Yonkers, and undocumented Irish
newcomers in Yonkers.166 Through her fieldwork, one can witness first-hand the
struggle immigrants face as they strive to live up to an ideal required for
assimilation. “Good Paddies” are hard-working, patriotic, and devoted to family,
while “Bad Paddies,” or newly arrived immigrants, exhibit behavior inherently
offensive to their predecessors. Duffy elucidates, “References to laziness, drinking,
potentially threatening behavior, and unmarried partnerships correspond to the
ways in which this generation fell short of the racial expectations of being Irish.”167
The chapter “They're Just Like Us” exemplifies this intergenerational struggle; while
an assimilated Irish ethnic identifies himself as American, a “white flighter”
complains that Irish newcomers tarnish the reputation of the Irish, and an
undocumented Irish immigrant notes that her Latino coworkers are “just like us.”168
How could Latinos be just like the Irish, who on first glance, would be
viewed as “white”? Duffy argues that race transcends skin color, and undocumented
Irish immigrants experience many of the same difficulties as other races and
ethnicities upon arrival, often working alongside one another, with one caveat–
166
Jennifer Nugent Duffy, Who's Your Paddy? Racial Expectations and the Struggle for Irish
American Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2013), 11.
167
Ibid., 86.
168
Ibid., 123.
79
�while the newly arrived Irish face prejudice, they are “marginalized, but privileged–
color does help.” Color does help, and lends itself to exclusion from discriminatory
immigration quotas, as well as preferential treatment when obtaining visas.
Capitalizing on the advantages afforded them, Irish Americans sought to “Legalize
the Irish”, and upon the crackdown on illegal immigration post-9/11, gained the
support of more individual senators than other ethnic groups lobbying for reform.
Dr. Duffy cautions, however, “Whiteness alone, however, could not help the
undocumented Irish in the United States. Whether they were making a public case
for Irish immigrants and comprehensive immigration reform, or private plea for
special Irish visas behind closed doors, the undocumented would have to adhere to
the model of Irishness well established in the United States.”169
Irish newcomers needed to conform to a model of Irishness–the “Good
Paddy”–in order to be accepted by Americans as well as their Irish American
predecessors. Meeting this racial expectation is not always realistic due to
obstacles all undocumented immigrants face, nor do the newly arrived Irish desire
to conform to this expectation. The path to assimilation is complicated; it does not
move in a linear fashion, and the process is rife with struggle as Irish immigrants
seek to find their place in American society while maintaining their Irish identity.
169
Ibid., 219.
80
�
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Vol. 40, num. 1, Clio - 2014
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
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RACE AND GENDER THROUGH THE AMERICAN LENS
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
English, Meagan
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2014-05
Description
An account of the resource
5 pgs
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Western Connecticut State University. Department of History
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/232/imperialSilk.jpg
7d30d602d9f281956b67216ca82050eb
Still Image
A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Imperial Silk Works ad
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1917
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/233/981bc10858e173a1500ed85f132cca8c.mp3
1eb0270b7c7046d0fe936ab560a8e8b5
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
30 min.
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Alex
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Joseph, Costello
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Alex arrived in Somers, New York from Bosnia at the age of 22. She describes conditions in Bosnia, including how the war of 1992-95 affected her family, and why she moved to the U.S. She explains the differences she has noticed between Bosnian and American culture. She felt restricted in her life in Bosnia and values the freedom and opportunities she has in the U.S.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Acculturation
Bosnia and Hercegovina
Bosnian Christians
Cultural Differences
Freedom of Religion
Freedom of Speech
Immigration
Oral History
War in Bosnia 1992-95
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/234/00a6db7c9164cb413f3a288fa1e1de8f.mp3
b296742ec1cd7c5009c10c780c97f16b
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
25 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Shalu
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Roman, David
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In the interview Shalu describes her family history and how she came the U.S. from India. She provides details regarding her arranged marriage and the process of gaining U.S. citizenship. She compares the status of women in India and the U.S.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Arranged marriage
Family separation
Hinduism
Immigration
India
Indian aristocracy
Oral History
Societal norms
U.S. citizenship
Women's rights
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/235/BuenosAires.mp3
324215fdf1e8952b6138cb0d7c2f4598
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
25 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with M.W.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Coll, Joseph
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
M.W. describes her immigration to the United States from Argentina. She discuses the transition from the large urban center to the small rural enviorment. She goes on to describe the Educational systems of Argentina and the United States.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Argentina
Brookfield (Conn.)
Buenos Aires
Foreign vs American School Systems
Immigration
Leather Maker
Oral History
Speech Pathologist
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/236/d9c6c9e0109ff29ecbe30d261253e253.mp3
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
28 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Mary Birch
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Olivo, Erin
Subject
The topic of the resource
Birch, Mary
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Education
Immigration
Ireland
Irish Catholic
New York
Oral History
Texas
Traditions
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/237/f9464de8446499bd03cc5300b46faca0.mp3
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Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
24 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Shalu
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Roman, David Jr.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Shalu
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Immigration
India
Oral History
Queen Victoria
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/238/Find.mp3
6d0fed9e2e5b7619975734954ec79a34
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
5 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Hertha Debrizzi
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Faruolo, Dana
Subject
The topic of the resource
Debrizzi, Hertha
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Denmark
Immigration
Oral History
World War II
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/239/2ddbf070de4ae8b54daaeeed159c14c4.mp3
2b3475574d8a13d6ee44f1300d68a47b
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
28 min.
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Luljita Ismaili
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Jowdy, Michele
Subject
The topic of the resource
Ismaili, Luljita
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
She discusses her hardships, joys, and family experiences, as well as her experiences with the immigration process here in America.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Immigration
Macedonia
Oral History
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/240/0a6c21ffe4f4ea176414dac965bd8ec0.mp3
875ab1a1a6604fa805aa496e198a2b67
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
36 min.
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with John Hartcorn
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bonisalli, Jeff
Subject
The topic of the resource
Hartcorn, John
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
John Hartcorn's experience coming to America
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Immigration
Oral History
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/241/b560352c8d8b79feb8f54620c69aa474.mp3
7615327d016cca5be04174aa139cbcaa
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
24 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Joseph DeSantis
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Kallomaki, Jamie
Subject
The topic of the resource
DeSantis, Joseph
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Joseph DeSantis served in the Italian Army, met his wife in Israel. After a divorce, he sought to re-connect with his daughter in the United States. He came to the United States in search of her, he adapted to life in the U.S. easily, finding work as an electrician and taught himself English by watching episodes of Matlock.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Forbes Magazine
Immigration
Italian Army
Italy
Matlock
Naples
New York City
Oral History
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/242/a14255b98ad57c631208abb23bd972f0.mp3
76d0ed724f9841f93a4dfdc5878fb84e
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
35 min.
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Helen Fahey Roche
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Mikhail, Eivilin
Subject
The topic of the resource
Roche, HelenFahey
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Helen Roche was born of turn of the century immigrant parents. She presents the life of Michael Fahey, her father, the hardships of the era which forced him to immigrate, his service in WWI and goes on to detail his first encounter with African Americans. Furthermore she details her own life and her acquisition and retention of her Irish Heritage and culture in the United States.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Coat of arms
Cross Cultural Bridges
Immigration
Irish Immigration
Irish Superstition
Oral History
World War I
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/243/8d4805b26ec73cbb1b8a46dd40c57dbe.mp3
3ebdfd4095d346fdb5e5380c1056445e
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
34 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Francesco D. Piselli
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Ballaro, Kimberly
Subject
The topic of the resource
Piselli, FrancescoD.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Francesco describes the state of his homeland after WWII and goes on to tell of his family's immigration. He describes the financial motivations of many Italian immigrants, including his own family's.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Abbey
Immigration
Italian Education System
Italy
Oral History
Rome
World War I
World War II
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/244/a8e1870211ddd0823d1bc00dba0ba964.mp3
8ad865d2bc1b2988fee7f9c169e23d56
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
27 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Carmine Hea
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Dewesse, Katie
Subject
The topic of the resource
Hea, Carmine
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Carmine immigrated from Italy and has lived in the United States for seven years. He describes his life in America as a Chef, he has recieved various awards for having the best pizza in the country.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Chef
Dishwasher
Food Critic Michael Stern
Immigration
Italy
New York Magazine
Oral History
-
https://archives.library.wcsu.edu/studentOmeka/files/original/Immigration_and_Memory_Project_2005-2007/245/73dcbdc68d310c5a3323a1a0b3672ab2.mp3
e7a4d5ef2c541168fe36c42b45555228
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Immigration and Memory Project, 2005-2007
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Peretti, Burton W. (Burton William), 1961-
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2005-2007
Description
An account of the resource
66 interviews
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Immigration & Memory is a searchable collection of oral history interviews with immigrants in the greater Danbury area. Interviews are conducted by WCSU students for courses in history and the social sciences. Project financial support is provided by the Western Connecticut State University President's Initiatives Fund. The oral history database will enable students to analyze the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and consider the implications of immigration in the Danbury area.
The interviews were digitally recorded in Windows Media format. These files are then converted into mp3 format. Approximately 25 interviews were initially completed and the inventory currently lists around 50. Students interviewed subjects from all over the world, including Bulgaria, Ireland, India, Italy, and Puerto Rico. Digital files were then uploaded and described in WestCollections (a DSpace repository). In 2015 those materials were moved to WestD.
The collection provides primary source data on the history of immigration, the nature of community formation and the implications of immigration to the Danbury area.
Subject
The topic of the resource
Emigration and immigration law--United States--History.
Oral History
A resource containing historical information obtained in interviews with persons having firsthand knowledge.
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration and Memory Project
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Oral History
Description
An account of the resource
32 min
Title
A name given to the resource
Oral history interview with Bridget Boylan
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Lanning, Katie
Subject
The topic of the resource
Boylan, Bridget
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Mrs. Bridget Boylan recounts her life history, beginning in Aughaicliffe, Ireland to her settlement in Mount Kisco, New York. She describes growing up in a farming family and limited opportunities in Ireland. Her father was a prominent figure in her community and was involved with the IRA. She first settled in New York City, where she had relatives. Later she met her husband, also from Ireland, and settled in Mount Kisco, New York. The couple had eight children. She describes her adjustment to American culture, as well as a continuing identification Irish ethnicity and culture.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2007
Ancient Order of Hibernians
Aughaicliffe
County Longford
farming
Immigration
Ireland
Irish Republican Army
Mount Kisco (NY)
New York
Oral History